05 Dimensions, Tolerances, and Surfaces

2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

5. Dimensions, Tolerances and Surfaces
1. Dimensions, Tolerances and Related
Attributes
2. Surfaces
3. Effect of Manufacturing Processes

ME 351
Manufacturing Technology I
Lecture 08 continued..
Lecture Objective
Dimensions, Tolerances, and Surfaces
Dimensions and Tolerances
Surfaces
Characteristics of Surfaces
Surface Texture
Surface Integrity
Tolerances and manufacturing Processes
Surfaces and manufacturing Processes

2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
1. Dimensions, Tolerances and Related
Attributes
2. Surfaces
Dimensions and Tolerances
Factors that determine the performance of a
manufactured product other than mechanical
and physical properties include :
Dimensions - linear or angular sizes of a
component specified on the part drawing
Tolerances - allowable variations from the
specified part dimensions that are permitted
in manufacturing
Dimensions (ANSI Y14.5M-1982):
A dimension is "a numerical value expressed in
appropriate units of measure and indicated on a
drawing and in other documents along with lines,
symbols, and notes to define the size or
geometric characteristic, or both, of a part or part
feature"
Dimensions on part drawings represent nominal
or basic sizes of the part and its features
The dimension indicates the part size desired by
the designer, if the part could be made with no
errors or variations in the fabrication process
Tolerances (ANSI Y14.5M-1982):
A tolerance is "the total amount by which a
specific dimension is permitted to vary. The
tolerance is the difference between the
maximum and minimum limits"
Variations occur in any manufacturing process,
which are manifested as variations in part size
Tolerances are used to define the limits of the
allowed variation
Bilateral Tolerance
Variation is permitted
in both positive and
negative directions
from the nominal
dimension
Possible for a
bilateral tolerance to
be unbalanced; for
example, 2.500
+0.010, -0.005

Figure 5.1 Ways to specify
tolerance limits for a
nominal dimension of 2.500:
(a) bilateral
Unilateral Tolerance
Variation from the
specified dimension is
permitted in only one
direction
Either positive or
negative, but not both

Figure 5.1 Ways to specify
(b) unilateral
Limit Dimensions
Permissible
variation in a part
feature size consists
of the maximum and
minimum
dimensions allowed

Figure 5.1 - Ways to specify
(c) limit dimensions
Other Geometric Attributes
Angularity. The extent to which a part feature
such as a surface or axis is at a specified angle
relative to a reference surface

Circularity. Circularity is the degree to which all
points on the intersection of the surface and a
plane perpendicular to the axis of revolution are
equidistant from the axis.

Concentricity. The degree to which any two (or
more) part features, such as a cylindrical surface
and a circular hole have a common axis.

Flatness. The extent to which all points on a surface
lie in a single plane.

Parallelism. The degree to which all points on a part
feature, such as a surface, line, or axis, are
equidistant from a reference plane or line or axis.

Perpendicularity. The degree to which all points on a
part feature, such as a surface, line, or axis, are 90o
from a reference plane or line or axis.

Straightness. The degree to which a part feature
such as a line or axis is a straight line.
1. Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related
Attributes
2. Surfaces
Why Surfaces are Important
Aesthetic reasons
Surfaces affect safety
Friction and wear depend on surface
characteristics
Surfaces affect mechanical and physical
properties
Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces
Smooth surfaces make better electrical
contacts
Surfaces
Nominal surface designers intended surface
contour of part, defined by lines in the
engineering drawing
The nominal surfaces appear as
absolutely straight lines, ideal circles,
round holes, and other edges and
surfaces that are geometrically perfect
Actual surfaces of a part are determined by
the manufacturing processes used to make it
Variety of processes result in wide
variations in surface characteristics
Surface Technology
Concerned with:
Defining the characteristics of a surface
Surface texture
Surface integrity
Relationship between manufacturing
processes and characteristics of resulting
surface
Surface Texture
The topography and geometric features of the
surface
When highly magnified, the surface is anything
but straight and smooth
It has roughness, waviness, and flaws
It also possesses a pattern and/or direction
resulting from the mechanical process that
produced it
Metallic Part Surface

Figure 5.2 A magnified cross-section of a typical metallic part surface
Surface Texture
Repetitive and/or random deviations from the
nominal surface of an object

Figure 5.3 Surface texture features
Four Elements of Surface Texture
1. Roughness - small, finely-spaced deviations
from nominal surface
Determined by material characteristics and
processes that formed the surface
2. Waviness - deviations of much larger spacing
Waviness deviations occur due to work
deflection, vibration, heat treatment, and
similar factors
Roughness is superimposed on waviness
3. Lay -
predominant
direction or
pattern of the
surface texture

Figure 5.4 Possible
lays of a surface
4. Flaws - irregularities that occur occasionally on
the surface
Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions, and
similar defects in the surface
Although some flaws relate to surface
texture, they also affect surface integrity

Surface Texture
Repetitive and/or random deviations from the
nominal surface of an object

Figure 5.3 Surface texture features
Surface Roughness
Average of vertical deviations from nominal
surface over a specified surface length

Figure 5.5 Deviations from nominal surface used in the two
definitions of surface roughness.
Surface Roughness Equation
Arithmetic average (AA) based on absolute
values of deviations, and is referred to as
average roughness

where R
a
= average roughness; y = vertical
deviation from nominal surface (absolute
value); and L
m
= specified distance over which
the surface deviations are measured
dx
L
y
R
m L
m
a

0
=
Alternative Surface Roughness Equation
Approximation of previous equation is perhaps
easier to comprehend

where R
a
has the same meaning as above; y
i
=
vertical deviations (absolute value) identified by
subscript i; and n = number of deviations
included in L
m

n
i
i
a
n
y
R
1
Cutoff Length
A problem with the R
a
computation is that
waviness may get included
To deal with this problem, a parameter called
the cutoff length is used as a filter to separate
waviness from roughness deviations
Cutoff length is a sampling distance along the
surface
A sampling distance shorter than the
waviness eliminates waviness deviations
and only includes roughness deviations
Surface Roughness Specification

Figure 5.6 Surface texture symbols in engineering
drawings: (a) the symbol, and (b) symbol with
identification labels
Surface Integrity
Surface texture alone does not completely
describe a surface
There may be metallurgical changes in the
altered layer beneath the surface that can have
a significant effect on a material's mechanical
properties
Surface integrity is the study and control of this
subsurface layer and the changes in it that
occur during processing which may influence
the performance of the finished part or product
Surface Changes Caused by Processing
Surface changes are caused by the application
of various forms of energy during processing
Example: Mechanical energy is the most
common form in manufacturing
Processes include forging, extrusion,
and machining
Although its primary function is to change
geometry of workpart, mechanical energy
can also cause residual stresses, work
hardening, and cracks in the surface layers
Energy Forms in Surface Integrity
Mechanical energy
Thermal energy
Chemical energy
Electrical energy
Surface Changes by Mechanical Energy
Residual stresses in subsurface layer
Example: bending of sheet metal
Cracks - microscopic and macroscopic
Example: tearing of ductile metals in
machining
Voids or inclusions introduced mechanically
Example: centerbursting in extrusion
Hardness variations (e.g., work hardening)
Example: strain hardening of new surface in
machining
Surface Changes by Thermal Energy
Metallurgical changes (recrystallization, grain
size changes, phase changes at surface)
Redeposited or resolidified material (e.g.,
welding or casting)
Heat-affected zone in welding (includes some
of the metallurgical changes listed above)
Hardness changes
Surface Changes by Chemical Energy
Intergranular attack
Chemical contamination
Absorption of certain elements such as H and
Cl in metal surface
Corrosion, pitting, and etching
Dissolving of microconstituents
Alloy depletion and resulting hardness changes
Surface Changes by Electrical Energy
Changes in conductivity and/or magnetism
Craters resulting from short circuits during
certain electrical processing techniques such
as arc welding
1. Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related
Attributes
2. Surfaces
Tolerances and Manufacturing Processes
Some manufacturing processes are inherently
more accurate than others
Examples:
Most machining processes are quite
accurate, capable of tolerances = 0.05 mm
( 0.002 in.) or better
Sand castings are generally inaccurate, and
tolerances of 10 to 20 times those used for
machined parts must be specified
Surfaces and Manufacturing Processes
Some processes are inherently capable of
producing better surfaces than others
In general, processing cost increases with
improvement in surface finish because
additional operations and more time are
usually required to obtain increasingly better
surfaces
Processes noted for providing superior
finishes include honing, lapping, polishing,
and superfinishing
Thats All for Today


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2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

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