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Registers
Today well see another common sequential device: registers.
Theyre a good example of sequential analysis and design.
They are also frequently used in building larger sequential
circuits.
Registers hold larger quantities of data than individual flip-flops.
Registers are central to the design of modern processors.
There are many different kinds of registers.
Well show some applications of
these special registers.

Registers 2
What good are registers?
Flip-flops are limited because they can store only one bit.
We had to use two flip-flops for our two-bit counter examples.
Most computers work with integers and single-precision floating-
point numbers that are 32-bits long.
A register is an extension of a flip-flop that can store multiple bits.
Registers are commonly used as temporary storage in a processor.
They are faster and more convenient than main memory.
More registers can help speed up complex calculations.
Well discuss RAM next time, and later well also see how registers
are used in designing and programming CPUs.
Registers 3
A basic register
Basic registers are easy to build. We can store multiple bits
just by putting a bunch of flip-flops together!
A 4-bit register from LogicWorks, Reg-4, is on the right, and
its internal implementation is below.
This register uses D flip-flops, so its easy to store data
without worrying about flip-flop input equations.
All the flip-flops share a common CLK and CLR signal.
Registers 4
Adding a parallel load operation
The input D
3
-D
0
is copied to the output Q
3
-Q
0
on every clock cycle.
How can we store the current value for more than one cycle?
Lets add a load input signal LD to the register.
If LD = 0, the register keeps its current contents.
If LD = 1, the register stores a new value, taken from inputs D
3
-
D
0
.
Registers 5
LD Q(t+1)
0 Q(t)
1 D
3
-D
0
Clock gating
We could implement the load ability by playing games with the CLK
input, as shown below.
When LD = 0, the flip-flop C inputs are held at 1. There is no
positive clock edge, so the flip-flops keep their current values.
When LD = 1, the CLK input passes through the OR gate, so the
flip-flops can receive a positive clock edge and can load a new
value from the D
3
-D
0
inputs.
Registers 6
Clock gating is bad
This is called clock gating, since gates are added to the clock
signal.
There are timing problems similar to those of latches. Here, LD
must be kept at 1 for the correct length of time (one clock cycle)
and no longer.
The clock is delayed a little bit by the OR gate.
In more complex scenarios, different flip-flops in the system
could receive the clock signal at slightly different times.
This clock skew can lead to synchronization problems.
Registers 7
A better parallel load
Another idea is to modify the flip-flop D inputs and not the clock
signal.
When LD = 0, the flip-flop inputs are Q
3
-Q
0
, so each flip-flop just
keeps its current value.
When LD = 1, the flip-flop inputs are D
3
-D
0
, and this new value is
loaded into the register.
Registers 8
Shift registers
A shift register shifts its output once every clock cycle.

SI is an input that supplies a new bit to shift into the register.
For example, if on some positive clock edge we have:
SI = 1
Q
0
-Q
3
= 0110
then the next state will be:
Q
0
-Q
3
= 1011
The current Q
3
(0 in this example) will be lost on the next cycle.
Registers 9
Q
0
(t+1) = SI
Q
1
(t+1) = Q
0
(t)
Q
2
(t+1) = Q
1
(t)
Q
3
(t+1) = Q
2
(t)
Shift direction

The circuit and example make it look like the register shifts right.

But it really depends on your interpretation of the bits. If you
consider Q3 to be the most significant bit instead, then the register
is shifting in the opposite direction!
Registers 10
Q
0
(t+1) = SI
Q
1
(t+1) = Q
0
(t)
Q
2
(t+1) = Q
1
(t)
Q
3
(t+1) = Q
2
(t)
Present Q
0
-Q
3
SI Next Q
0
-Q
3
ABCD X XABC
Present Q
3
-Q
0
SI Next Q
3
-Q
0
DCBA X CBAX
Shift registers with parallel load
We can add a parallel load, just like we did for regular registers.
When LD = 0, the flip-flop inputs will be SIQ
0
Q
1
Q
2
, so the
register shifts on the next positive clock edge.
When LD = 1, the flip-flop inputs are D
0
-D
3
, and a new value is
loaded into the shift register, on the next positive clock edge.

Registers 11
Shift registers in
LogicWorks
Here is a block symbol for the Shift Reg-4 from LogicWorks. The
implementation is shown on the previous page, except the LD input
here is active-low instead.
Registers 12
i-clicker
How do you implement using the Shift Reg 4 the sequence 1, 3, 7, 15,
1, 3, that is, the sequence 0001, 0011, 0111, 1111, 0001, .

A) D0 =1, D1=1, D2=1, D3=1, SI=1, LD = 1

B) D0 =1, D1=0, D2=0, D3=0, SI=1, LD = 1

C) D0 =1, D1=0, D2=0, D3=0, SI=1, LD = Q3

D) D0 =1, D1=0, D2=0, D3=0, SI=0, LD = Q3
Registers 13
Other types of shift registers
Logical shifts Standard shifts like we just saw. In the absence of a SI
input, 0 occupies the vacant position.
Left: 0110 -> 1100
Right: 0110 -> 0011
Circular shifts (also called ring counters or rotates) The shifted out bit
wraps around to the vacant position.
Left: 1001 -> 0011
Right: 1001 -> 1100
Switch-tail ring counter (aka Johnson counter) Similar to the ring
counter, but the serial input is the complement of the serial output.
Left: 1001 -> 0010
Right: 1001 -> 0100
Arithmetical shifts Left shifting is the same as a logical shift. Right
shifting however maintains the MSB.
Left: 0110 -> 1100
Right: 0110 -> 0011; 1011 -> 1101
Registers 14
i-clicker
A switch-tail ring counter is similar to the ring counter, but the serial
input is the complement of the serial output.
List the sequence of states after each right shift until the register returns
to 1001
Register content 1001
A) 0101, 1011, 1100, 0111, 1010, 0100, 0011, 1001

B) 1100, 0110, 0011, 1001

C) 0100, 1010, 1101, 0110, 1011, 0101, 0010, 1001

D) 1100, 0010, 0101, 1110, 0011, 1101, 1010, 1001
Registers 15
Serial data transfer
One application of shift registers is converting between serial data
and parallel data.
Computers typically work with multiple-bit quantities.
ASCII text characters are 8 bits long.
Integers, single-precision floating-point numbers, and screen
pixels are up to 32 bits long.
But sometimes its necessary to send or receive data serially, or
one bit at a time. Some examples include:
Input devices such as keyboards and mice.
Output devices like printers.
Any serial port, USB or Firewire device transfers data serially.
Recent switch from Parallel ATA to Serial ATA in hard drives.

Registers 16
Receiving serial data
To receive serial data using a shift register:
The serial device is connected to the registers SI input.
The shift register outputs Q3-Q0 are connected to the computer.
The serial device transmits one bit of data per clock cycle.
These bits go into the SI input of the shift register.
After four clock cycles, the shift register will hold a four-bit word.
The computer then reads all four bits at once from the Q3-Q0
outputs.

Registers 17
serial device
computer
Sending data serially
To send data serially with a shift register, you do the opposite:
The CPU is connected to the registers D inputs.
The shift output (Q3 in this case) is connected to the serial
device.
The computer first stores a four-bit word in the register, in one
cycle.
The serial device can then read the shift output.
One bit appears on Q3 on each clock cycle.
After four cycles, the entire four-bit word will have been sent.
Registers 18
serial device
computer
Registers in Modern Hardware
CPU GPR's Size L1 Cache L2 Cache
Pentium 4 8 32 bits 8 KB 512 KB
Athlon XP 8 32 bits 64 KB 512 KB
Athlon 64 16 64 bits 64 KB 1024 KB
PowerPC 970 (G5) 32 64 bits 64 KB 512 KB
Itanium 2 128 64 bits 16 KB 256 KB
MIPS R14000 32 64 bits 32 KB 16 MB
Registers 19
Registers store data in the CPU
Used to supply values to the ALU.
Used to store the results.
If we can use registers, why bother with RAM?

Answer: Registers are expensive!
Registers occupy the most expensive space
on a chip the core.
L1 and L2 cache are very fast RAM but not
as fast as registers.
Dunnington. Source INtel
Shift versus Multiply and Divide
You can multiply by powers of two by shifting to the left
A left shift by n is equivalent to multiplying by 2
n

Example:
3 * 2 = 6; 3*2
2
= 12
0011 << 1 = 0110; 0011 << 2 = 1100

You can divide by powers of two by shifting to the right
A right shift by n is equivalent to dividing by 2
n

Example
8 / 2 = 4; 8 / 2
2
= 2; 4 / 2= 2; -4 / 2 = -2
1000 >> 1 = 0100; 1000 >> 2 = 0010; 0100 >> 1 = 0010; 1100
>> 1= 1110
Registers 20
-4 en twos
complement
-2 en twos
complement
Why should I user shift instead
of multiply?
Program 1: Multiplication

#include ..

main() {
scanf(%d,&mul);
start = _rdtsc();
for (i=0;i<60;i++){
b=b*mul;
}
end = _rdtsc();
printf("It took %llu cycles\n",
end-start);
return 0;
}

Output: It took 1056 cycles

Registers 21
Program 2:Shift

#include ..

main() {
scanf(%d,&mul);
start = _rdtsc();
for (i=0;i<60;i++){
b=b << mul;
}
end = _rdtsc();
end-start);
return 0;
}


Why should I user shift instead
of integer division?
Program 1: Division

#include ..

main() {
scanf(%d,&mul);
start = _rdtsc();
for (i=0;i<60;i++){
b=b/mul;
}
end = _rdtsc();
end-start);
return 0;
}


Registers 22
Program 2:Shift

#include ..

main() {
scanf(%d,&mul);
start = _rdtsc();
for (i=0;i<60;i++){
b=b >> mul;
}
end = _rdtsc();
end-start);
return 0;
}


Registers summary
A register is a special state machine that stores multiple bits
of data.
Several variations are possible:
Parallel loading to store data into the register.
Shifting the register contents either left or right.
Counters are considered a type of register too!
One application of shift registers is converting between serial
and parallel data.
Most programs need more storage space than registers
provide.
Well introduce RAM to address this problem.
Registers are a central part of modern processors, as we will
see in coming weeks.
Registers 23

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