History of IRON

Iron has been used since prehistoric times.

No one knows how humans discovered the
use of iron or how they first learnt to
extract iron from its ores.
It appears that humans were using iron as
early as 4000 BC.
There is evidence that the Egyptians used
iron tools as early as 3000 BC when they
built the pyramids.
USES OF IRON
It provided spears, arrowheads, axes, swords,
daggers, maces, bayonets, guns and canons
for attack, and helmets and shields for
defence
It can be bent, stretched, twisted, folded,
cast, riveted, welded, drilled and cut with
precision
Giant projects like building bridges, ocean-
going tankers and oilrigs at sea all use the
tremendous strength of metals
Manufacture of steel
Iron ore:
Iron is the most important element in steel and is
mined in open-pit mines as a solid or powder
Most steel comprises at least 98% iron
The other 2% is either carbon, silicon, sulphur,
manganese, nickel, tungsten or other elements
Pig iron:
the iron is separated from oxygen and other
materials in the iron ore.
The molten iron is cast into solid slabs or blocks,
called pigs and is stored for future use.
Manufacture of steel
Furnace:
Charged with coke and limestone that is
ignited and used to extract iron from iron
ore using a smelting process
Smelting:
separates the iron from the oxygen known
as reduction

IRON ORE MINING
IRON ORE
Extracting Iron
Iron ore
Smelting is the most important method for
extracting iron from the ore.
The ore is dumped into a blast furnace and
heated with coke and limestone.
Oxygen escapes from the iron and
combines with the carbon from the coke.
Other impurities from the iron ore and coke
become trapped in the molten limestone.
Furnace
Blast Furnace
a tall, round structure about 30 m high and 9 m in diameter
Cupola furnace
a cylindrical blast furnace used in foundries for remelting iron
or other metals
Open-hearth Furnaces
large, rectangular basins
Basic Oxygen Furnace
large bottle-shaped container that holds about 80 tonnes of
metal
Electric Furnace
uses an electric current to reach the high temperature required
for melting
Blast Furnace
The blast furnace is charged before smelting begins.
In charging, the blast furnace is filled with coke,
limestone, and iron ore and then ignited.
Air is heated to 675 C by smaller furnaces called stoves
and is forced in through the bottom of the blast
furnace.
The blast of hot air intensifies the burning of the
charge material.
The temperature at the bottom of the furnace rises to
well above the melting point of iron, which is 1 535 C.
Blast Furnace
This high temperature causes chemical reactions to occur,
during which pure iron is released from the iron ore.
The molten iron drops to the bottom of the blast furnace.
The molten limestone traps the impurities from the iron
ore and coke.
The mixture, called slag, floats on the top of the molten
iron.
The slag is then drawn off through a hole in the furnace
called a slag tap hole.
The molten iron is drawn off near the bottom of the
furnace and is either used immediately for making steel or
stored as pig iron.
Foundries make iron castings from re-melted pig iron.
Cupola Furnace
A cupola furnace is similar to but smaller than a blast
furnace.
Charges of pig iron, scrap iron, low-sulphur coke or
anthracite, and limestone go into the cupola furnace.
Scrap steel is added to make certain kinds of cast iron.
The iron is melted and poured into moulds usually
made of sand, in which it is allowed to solidify.
This is a simple, convenient and relatively cheap process
to manufacture components of complicated shapes.
Cupola Furnace
Open-hearth Furnaces
It is charged with limestone and steel scrap.
Iron ore may also be added.
Gas, oil or coal is burned as fuel, and hot air
is directed over the charge in the furnace.
The temperature above the charge reaches
about 1 650 C and the charge melts.
Open-hearth Furnaces
When the charge is nearly melted, molten
pig iron from the blast furnace is added to
the furnace.
Heating continues, and the impurities
combine with the oxygen.
Some of the oxidised impurities bubble up
through the molten metal as a gas.
Others float to the top and combine with
the molten limestone to form slag
Open-hearth Furnaces
After the impurities burn away, alloying
elements are added to bring the steel to the
required composition.
The steel is then drawn from the furnace
into a ladle and
poured into tall
moulds to form
ingots
Electric furnace
High voltage causes electricity to arc between the
carbon electrodes within the furnace.
The electric furnace gives the operator precise
control of both the furnace atmosphere and the
amount of alloying elements added during the
process.
It is the only furnace that can remove all the
sulfur from steel.
Tool steels, high-speed steels and other speciality
steels are produced in electric furnaces.
Electric furnace
Electric furnace
The finished steel from the furnace is
poured into tall, rectangular moulds.
The steel solidifies in the moulds to form
ingots weighing 10 tonnes.
When the mould is lifted off, the red-hot
ingot is lowered into a heated pit called a
soaking pit.
Ingots in the soaking pit stay hot while they
wait to enter the rolling mill.
Basic Oxygen Furnace
It is charged with molten pig iron.
A water-cooled pipe called a lance is inserted
into the furnace.
Pure oxygen is forced through the lance into the
metal.
The oxygen combines with the contaminants
and removes them from the iron.
Using this process takes about only one hour to
convert 80 tonnes of iron into steel.
Basic Oxygen Furnace
Assessment
Discuss the following topics:
1. How can you decrease noise pollution in urban
areas? (Hint: Think, for instance, of revving car
engines and loud radios.)
How can you improve sanitation, and thus health,
in rural areas? (Hint: Think of VIP latrines
[toilets], the function of bacteria in these toilets,
and preventing ground water from being
contaminated.)
2. What are the conditions of mine workers and why
are certain diseases prevalent amongst them.
Properties of Metals
Strength refers to the materials ability to
withstand forces that are applied to it, without
breaking, bending, shattering or deforming in any
way.
Elasticity refers to the materials ability to absorb
forces and flex in different directions and return to
its original shape when the load is removed.
Plasticity refers to the materials ability to change
in shape permanently it is the reverse of
elasticity.
Properties of Metals
Ductility refers to the materials ability to change
shape by stretching it along its length, or to be
drawn into wire form.
Malleability refers to the materials ability to be
reshaped in all directions without cracking. Lead is
a malleable material but lacks ductility because of
low tensile strength.
Brittleness refers to the materials behaviour
when fractures occur with little or no deformation.
Glass is a classic example of a material with this
property.
Properties of Metals
Toughness refers to the materials ability to
withstand shock loads and remain intact after
continual bending in opposite directions.
Softness is the opposite property to hardness. Soft
materials may be easily shaped by filing, drilling or
machining in a lathe, milling machine or shaping
machine.
Stiffness is the ability to withstand bending.
Flexibility refers to metals which remain bent
after a bending force has been removed.
Properties of Metals
Hardness refers to the materials ability to
resist penetration, scratching, abrasion,
indentation and wear.
Unfortunately the harder carbon steel tools
are made, the more brittle they become, so
some hardness must be sacrificed for
toughness in the tempering process.
Production of Metal
Cast iron
Cast iron is produced in a cupola furnace in
much the same way as the iron ore is smelted.
Steel
Different processes produce different kinds of
steel, each process requiring a special furnace.
Steel-making furnaces include open-hearth
furnaces, basic oxygen furnaces and electric
furnaces.
Cast Iron
Cast iron is an alloy of iron and carbon with
small amounts of manganese, silicon, sulfur
and phosphorus.
Cast iron is brittle and relatively weak in tension
with low tensile strength and poor shock
resistance, but strong in compression and is
easily machined.
Cast iron is not ductile and cannot be bent
without fracturing.
The main advantage of cast iron is that it is
easily cast into various shapes.

Cast Iron
It absorbs vibrations well, making it suitable for
supporting machine tools.
Cast iron is used in the manufacturing of
machine beds, marking-off tables, machine
tables and internal combustion engines as well
as in the production of pistons, piston rings and
cylinders.
Covers on road drains are usually made from cast
iron.
Carbon is present in cast iron, in the form of
graphite.

Cast Iron
The carbon flakes act as a lubricant, enabling the
cast iron to be machined dry.
Drilling or tapping of cast iron components is
fairly easy and no lubricant is required.
There is, however, a hard skin in which some of
the moulding sand may still be present.
There are five types of cast iron, depending on the
structure of the carbon in the iron.
These are grey cast iron, white cast iron, ductile
cast iron, malleable cast iron and high-alloy cast
iron
Ferrous Metals
Ferrous metals contain iron as their parent
metal.
For instance, in iron, carbon is the most
important supplement only present in small
amounts of approximately 0,05% to 1,7%, and
seldom exceeding 1,5%.
The presence of carbon in steel causes big
changes in the nature of the metal, and also
determines the hardness of the metal.
Ferrous Metals
If the carbon content is increased:
Greater hardness is obtained.
Tensile strength is increased.
Ductility is decreased.
Welding ability is decreased.
There are three classes of plain carbon
steels.
low-carbon steel,
medium-carbon steel and
high-carbon steel.
Plain carbon steels

Low-carbon steel (mild steel)
commonly known as soft, mild or machinery
steel
Used where ductility and softness are important
and a high tensile strength is required.
carbon content of between 0,15% and 0,3%.
used for operations such as cold bending and
riveting
easy to press into a new shape, machine, weld or
forge
Low-carbon steel (mild steel)

May be worked hot or cold cannot be hardened by
heating and quenching, but can be case-
hardened
Products like rivets, nuts, bolts, nails, washers,
chains, machine parts, wire fence, forged parts and
shafting can be made from this type of steel.
available in sheets of varying thickness, squares,
bar form with hexagon, round, wire, plates or flat
sections in a black or bright form.
Medium-carbon steel
Has a carbon content between 0,3% and 0,75%
Is less ductile, harder and has greater tensile strength than
low-carbon steel.
Its hardness and strength can be increased by quenching
the metal while it is red hot in water or oil.
Also has better machining qualities and is suitable for
many general engineering purposes where the stresses
applied are greater than could be withstood by mild steel.
These steels are used for shafts, rails, connecting rods, car
axles, spindles, gears, heavy forgings and other machine
parts requiring medium strength and wear resisting
surfaces.
High-carbon steel
High-carbon steel is frequently known as tool
steel, with a carbon content ranging between
0,75% and 1,7%.
High-carbon steel has a higher tensile strength
and hardness than steels in the lower carbon
range.
It responds readily to heat treatment and is used
for most cutting tools especially with alloys after
being hardened and tempered.
High-carbon steels are also used for chisels, files
drills, reamers, taps, hammers and crowbars.
Alloying Elements
These are mixed with metals:
to improve its mechanical properties so as to
permit higher tempering temperature while
maintaining high strength and improving ductility
to improve mechanical properties at low or
elevated temperature
to increase strength and toughness
to increase resistance to high temperatures
to secure greater hardness for wear resistance
to provide high impact resistance
to secure better machinability.
Alloying Elements
Alloying can also lower the melting point of
the metal, increase the resistance to
corrosion and rust and change the colour
and structure of the metal.
Alloying may also reduce the cost of a metal.
Ferrous Alloying Elements
The most commonly used elements are:
Chromium (Cr)
Vanadium (V)
Manganese (Mn)
Nickel (Ni)
Tungsten (W)
Molybdenum (Mo)

Chromium (Cr)
Is essentially a hardening agent.
Chrome steel is also known as stainless steel.
Frequently used with nickel as a toughening element
to produce superior mechanical properties.
Steels containing chromium are noted for wear and
abrasion resistance.
Chrome steels are used in machine parts, races for
bearings, ball bearings, gears, journals, shafts, dies,
coil springs, gauges, nuts and bolts, and flat springs.
Does not hold size as accurately as manganese steels
Vanadium (V)
Improves the elasticity, strength and
fatigue-resistance of the steel
Has a more powerful effect upon the
properties of steel than any other element
and gives:
increased hardness
secondary hardening upon tempering
increased hardness at elevated
temperatures.
Manganese (Mn)
Normally present in all commercial steels
It is essential to steel production
It is necessary not only in the melting process
but also in rolling and other processing methods
In hot forging, the action of manganese on
sulphur improves the hot-working
characteristics
Manganese steels have a greater impact and yield
strength than plain carbon steels
Manganese (Mn)
It lowers the temperature to which the steel must
be heated for hardening
Easily cast into any shape, although the cast
condition is weak and brittle
Heat treatment can give this steel great wearing
power with much ductility.
This makes it useful in steel crusher jaws, and
rammers for crushing ore.
Nickel (Ni)
When added to steel nickel increases the ductility,
strength, hardness and toughness of the metal.
Nickel steels are used for machine parts subject to
repeated shock and stress.
They are easily heat-treated because nickel lowers the
critical cooling rate.
This critical cooling rate is necessary to produce
hardening by quenching.
These steels are used for axles, crankshafts, special
gears, scientific and measuring instruments, marine
shafting and parts for earthmoving equipment
Tungsten (W)
One of the principal alloying elements
found in many alloy tool steels is tungsten.
When added to steel it increases the strength and
toughness at high temperatures and makes a dense fine
grain structure in steel.
When added to high-carbon steel it is used for high-
speed cutting tools, dies, shear blades and exhaust
valves.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Added to steel to improve the heat-treatment
properties
It increases the hardness in steel, resists softening
upon heating and prevents steel from becoming
brittle when tempered.
Machine parts such as propeller shafts and
transmission shafts, bolts, differential gears, coil
springs, stainless steel, roller bearings and leaf
springs are made from this type of steel.
Non-ferrous Metals
Non-ferrous metals are those metals which
do not contain iron
These are metals such as such as copper, tin,
lead, zinc, aluminium and antinomy.
These metals may be mixed to give us the
various alloys, which are of great
importance.
Copper (Cu)
Copper is red in colour and is tough, ductile and
malleable.
Copper is a pure metal.
It bends and stretches without fracture.
It is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity.
It is usually drawn into wire.
Pure copper is difficult to cast but has a very high tensile
strength when cold drawn.
It is used for cables, switchboard parts, electrical bolts and
nuts, busbars, telephone wires, soldering irons, electrical
wiring, tubing for water supply and sometimes for roofing.
Tin (Sn)
Tin is a silvery-white shiny metal with a
bluish shade.
It is corrosion resistant, soft and malleable,
and is a poor conductor of electricity.
Tin is used in soft solder, the canning
industry and the cladding of steel sheeting.
It is also used in brasses and bronzes.
Tin provides a protective coating in copper
wires and is the basis of white metal
bearings.
Tin (Sn)
Lead (Pb)
Lead is a soft, bluish-grey coloured metal.
It is malleable, ductile, and tough and has very low
tensile strength.
Lead has a very low melting point.
It is a pure metal, which bends and stretches easily.
It is often added to other metals to make them
free-cutting.
It is used for soft solder, bullets, lead cables,
plumbing, on roofs, and as plates in car batteries
Lead (Pb)
Zinc (Zn)
Zinc is a bluish-white colour and is hard,
brittle and malleable.
Zinc is a pure metal which casts well and
resists corrosion.
Zinc is seldom used alone but is alloyed with
other metals to make brass and bronze.
It is used as a coating (galvanising) on steel
sheets, water tanks and wire.
Aluminium (Al)
Aluminium-bearing ore (bauxite ) is
ground into a powder and processed
chemically to produce an oxide, alumina.
Aluminium has a bluish-white colour, is
fairly hard, extremely light and resistant to
corrosion.
It is a pure or base metal.
It is the lightest of the commonly used
metals.
Aluminium (Al)
A cast aluminium engine block
Aluminium (Al)
It is too soft to use in its pure state but is alloyed
with copper, magnesium and manganese.
It is widely used for many components.
Aluminium is impossible to solder by the usual
methods.
It is non-magnetic and a far better conductor of
electricity than copper.
It is used for cooking utensils, foil (often called
silver paper) and electricity conductors.
Antimony
Antimony has a bluish-white colour and has
a scaly, crystalline structure.
It is very brittle and is used only in alloys
such as pewter, solder and anti-friction
metals.
Non-ferrous Alloys
Brass
Bronze
White metal
Duralumin
Brass
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, available in many
varying proportions of the two metals.
Brass turns well, is easily cast and resists corrosion.
The higher the zinc content, the lower the melting
point, which results in lower malleability and ductility.
The lower the zinc content, the better the corrosion
resistance, and the higher the strength and ductility of
the metal.
Brass
Brass is easily machined.
Brass is usually tougher than bronze and
produces a stringy chip when machined.
Brass is widely used for its resistance to
corrosion and also for the manufacture of
condenser parts, tubes, rods and sheets.
It is also used in bolts and nuts, gears,
bushes, electrical components, taps and
other water fittings.

Bronze
Bronze is found in many combinations of copper
and other metals, but copper and tin are its main
elements.
Bronze is sometimes alloyed with zinc, lead or
phosphorous, which is used in the production of
phosphor bronze.
Bronze is usually harder than brass, and is easily
machined with sharp tools.
The chip produced is often granular.
Bronze is used for valves, valve seats, bearings and
gear wheels.
White metal
White metal is an alloy with either a lead or
tin base.
White metal is also known as Babbitt metal.
The tin-based white metal is used in heavy
duty bearings to withstand greater pressures
and speed whilst the lead-based metals are
used under less exacting conditions.
White metal is used for bearings and to
reduce friction.
Duralumin
Duralumin is an aluminium alloy, which
contains magnesium, manganese, copper,
and silicon in small percentages.
It is a light metal with a high tensile strength
and good resistance to corrosion, even in
seawater.
Duralumin is used in the manufacturing of
bars, sheets, and rivets and in automobile
and aircraft parts.
Identification of Metals
All metals are normally marked or colour coded on the
ends
If the marking is cut off and the piece of metal is
separated from its proper storage rack, it is very
difficult to determine the carbon content and alloy
group.
start cutting from the unmarked end and leave the
marked end intact.
Identification of Metals
By a process of elimination, they can determine
which of the several steel types in the workshop is
most comparable to the sample.
These methods of workshop testing include:
Visual test
Scratch test
Spark test
File test
Sound test
Machinability test
Visual test
Heat scale or black mill scale is found on all hot rolled
steels, that is low-carbon, medium-carbon, high-carbon
and alloyed steels.
Cold-finished steel usually has a metallic lustre.
Ground and polished steel have a shiny finish.
Chromium, nickel and stainless steel which is austenitic
and non-magnetic, usually have a white appearance.
When grey cast iron fractures, it appears dark grey and
will smear your finger with a grey graphite smudge
when touched.
When white cast iron fractures it appears silvery or
white.
Scratch test
Be sure that all scale and other surface
impurities have been removed before
scratch testing.
Simply scratch one sample with another and
the softer sample will be marked.
A variation of this method is to strike similar
edges of two samples together.
The one receiving the deeper indentation
is the softer of the two.
Spark test
Tests for carbon content in many steels.
Always wear safety goggles or a face shield.
When held against the grinding wheel, the
metal tested will display a particular spark
pattern depending on the carbon content.
Adjust the grinding wheel so that the sparks
will fly outward and downward, and away from
you.
Use a coarse grit wheel which has been freshly
dressed to remove contaminants.
Spark test
High-carbon steel:
short, very white or light yellow carrier lines with
considerable forking with many star-like bursts
Spark test
Low-carbon steel:
straight carrier lines with a yellowish colour with a
very small amount of branching and very little
carbon burst

Spark test
Cast iron:
short carrier lines with many bursts, which are red
near the grinder and orange-yellow farther out;
considerable pressure is required on cast iron to
make sparks
File test
Files can establish the relative hardness
between two samples, as in the scratch test.
This method, however, requires skill.
Take care not to damage the file, since filing
on hard materials may ruin the file.
Testing should be done on the tip or near
the edge
Sound test
The metal type can also be determined by
the sound it makes when it is tapped with a
hammer or when it is dropped on the floor.
If the sound is loud and clear, the metal is a
high-carbon steel (hard) but if it is a dull
sound, the metal is a low-carbon steel (soft).
Machinability test
Machinability can be sample-tested.
For example, two unknown samples
identical in appearance and size can be cut
in a machine tool, using the same speed and
feed for both.
The ease of cutting should be compared and
the chips observed for heating colour and
curl.
Composites
Nowadays there is an ever-growing number of
synthetic materials available on the market.
These materials become plastic above certain
temperatures and while plastic, they can be squeezed
into dies and moulds to give them the required shape
which is retained on cooling.
These materials hardly ever show signs of plastic
properties in their finished state.
Two main types of plastic materials are thermoplastics
and thermosetting plastics (also referred to as
thermosets).
Thermoplastics
These plastics can be re-heated and therefore
shaped in various ways.
They cannot be used at temperatures much above
100 C although they harden again on cooling.
They tend to be tougher than thermosetting
plastic but not as firm.
This material can be recycled.
It is tough, of low density, low cost and can be
formed in intricate shapes with ease
Thermoplastics
Some thermoplastics are transparent, for example
celluloid and Perspex, and can be coloured by adding
pigment.
Nylon is one of the best-known and earliest plastics
and is used for a variety of purposes including gear
wheels and pulleys.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a member of this group
and is a flexible, rubber-like substance which makes a
dull sound when dropped.
It is commonly used for insulating electrical cables.

Thermosetting plastics
Once these plastics set they cannot be re-
heated to soften, shape and mould.
They are firm, hard and relatively fragile.
They are very durable and of great strength.
Bakelite falls within this category.
Thermosetting plastics are mostly used for
electrical equipment and components,
melamine dinnerware, connectors and
surface coating.
Reinforced plastic
Laminated plastics like Tufnol consist of a
fibrous material such as woven cloth or
paper saturated with phenolic resin.
The fabric sheets are laid up in a hydraulic
press and squeezed and heated so that they
become solid sheets, cylinders or shafts.