Heat Treatment Precipitation Hardening Part II: Metal Alloys and Fabrication of Metals
Outline Outline Heat Treatment of Steels Hardenability Influence of quenching medium, specimen size, and geometry Annealing Processes o Annealing of ferrous alloys o Full annealing o Normalizing o Process annealing o Stress relief Precipitation Hardening 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 1 10 100 A The complete isothermal transformation diagram for an iron-carbon alloy of eutectoid composition.
A: austenite B: bainite M: martensite P: pearlite Conventional heat treatment procedures for producing martensitic steels involves continuous and rapid cooling of an austenitized specimen in some type of quenching medium, such as water, oil, or air The optimum properties of a steel that has been quenched and then tempered can be realized only if, during the quenching heat treatment, the specimen has been converted to a high content of martensite Heat Treatment of Steels The cooling rate varies with position Adapted from Fig. 11.12, Callister 6e. Why hardness changes with position? Medium air oil water Severity of Quench small moderate large Hardness small moderate large Effect of Quenching Medium The severity of quench: water > oil > air
Radial hardness profiles for (a) 50 mm (2 in.) diameter cylindrical 1040 and 4140 steel specimens quenched in mildly agitated water, and (b) 50 and 100 mm (2 and 4 in.) diameter cylindrical specimens of 4140 steel quenched in mildly agitated water. Effect of Part Size When surface-to-volume ratio increases cooling rate increases hardness increases Position center surface Cooling rate small large Hardness small large Effect of Part Geometry Annealing: a heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an elevated temperature for an extended time period and then slowly cooled. Three stages of annealing 1. Heating to the desired temperature 2. Holding or soaking at that temperature 3. Cooling, usually to room temperature Annealing Processes 1. Relieve Internal Stresses Internal stresses can build up in metal as a result of processing. Stresses may be caused by previous processing operations such as welding, cold working, casting, forging, or machining. If internal stresses are allowed to remain in a metal, the part may eventually distort or crack. Annealing helps relieve internal stresses and reduce the chances for distortion and cracking. Purposes for Annealing 2. Increasing Softness, Machinability, and Formability A softer and more ductile material is easier to machine in the machine shop. An annealed part will respond better to forming operations. 3. Refinement of Grain Structures After some types of metalworking (particularly cold working), the crystal structures are elongated. Annealing can change the shape of the grains back to the desired form. Purposes for Annealing (Contd) The IronIron Carbide Phase Diagram L + Fe 3 C 2.14 4.30 6.70 0.022 0.76 M N C P E O G F H Cementite Fe 3 C Most heat treating operations begin with heating the alloy into the austenitic phase field to dissolve the carbide in the iron Steel heat treating practice rarely involves the use of temperatures above 1040C Temperature Regime of Steel Heat Treatment FIG. 11.9 The iron-iron carbide phase diagram in the vicinity of the eutectoid, indicating heat treating temperature ranges for the plain carbon steels. Full annealing is the most basic of the annealing processes and is often simply referred to as annealing. Utilized for low- and medium-carbon steels that will be machined or will experience extensive plastic deformation during a forming operation Full Annealing The alloy austenitized by heating to 15 to 40C above the A 3 or A 1 lines until equilibrium is achieved (i.e., the alloy changes to austenite), and then furnace cooled The soaking time: to soak the material for 1h at the annealing temperature for every inch of thickness (a rule of thumb) A cooling rate of 100F/hr is typical for full annealing. Full Annealing FIG. 11.9 The iron-iron carbide phase diagram in the vicinity of the eutectoid, indicating heat treating temperature ranges for the plain carbon steels. Microstructure product: coarse pearlite in addition to any proeutectoid phase soft and ductile Microstructure after Full Annealing FIG. 11.9 The iron-iron carbide phase diagram in the vicinity of the eutectoid, indicating heat treating temperature ranges for the plain carbon steels. A heat treatment used to negate the effects of cold work, i.e., to soften and increase the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal In process annealing, parts are not as completely softened as they are in full annealing, but the time required is considerably lessened. Process Annealing (or Intermediate Annealing) Process annealing is frequently used as an intermediate heat-treating step during the manufacture of a part. A part that is stretched considerably during manufacture may be sent to the annealing oven three or four times before all of the stretching is completed. Process Annealing (or Intermediate Annealing) Forging Rolling Recovery and recrystallization processes are allowed to occur 1. Recovery Some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of dislocation motion, as a result of enhanced atomic diffusion at the elevated temperature. 2. Recrystallization Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain free and equiaxed grains that have low dislocation densities and are characteristic of the precold-worked condition. Ordinarily a fine-grained microstructure is desired; the heat treatment is terminated before appreciable grain growth has occurred. Process Annealing (Contd) FIG. 7.11 Alteration of the grain structure of a polycrystalline metal as a result of plastic deformation. (a) Before deformation the grains are equiaxed. (b) The deformation has produced elongated grains. Alteration of Grain Structure as a Result of Plastic Deformation New crystals are formed that: have a small dislocation density are small consume cold-worked crystals 33% cold worked brass New crystals nucleate after 3 sec. at 580C. 0.6 mm 0.6 mm Recrystallization All cold-worked crystals are consumed. After 4 seconds After 8 seconds 0.6 mm 0.6 mm Further Recrystallization The name normalizing comes from the original intended purpose of the process to return steel to the normal condition it was in before it was altered by cold working or other processing. Heating the alloy to 55 to 85C above the A 3 or A cm
and holding for sufficient time so that the alloy completely transforms to austenite, followed by air cooling Normalizing The iron-iron carbide phase diagram in the vicinity of the eutectoid, indicating heat treating temperature ranges for the plain carbon steels. To refine the grains and produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution for steels that have been plastically deformed Normalizing does not soften the material as much as full annealing does. The cooling process does not leave the material as ductile or as internally stress-free. A normalized part will usually be a little stronger, harder, and more brittle than a full-annealed part. Normalizing (Contd) Internal residual stresses may develop in metal pieces: Plastic deformation processes (machining and grinding) Non-uniform cooling of a piece that was processed or fabricated at an elevated temperature (welding or casting) A phase transformation that is induced upon cooling wherein parent and product phases have different densities Distortion and warpage may result if these residual stresses are not removed. Stress Relief Annealing The work piece is heated to the recommended temperature, held long enough to attain a uniform temperature, and finally cooled to room temperature slowly The annealing temperature is ordinarily a relatively low one such that effects resulting from cold work and other heat treatments are not affected Stress Relief Annealing (Contd) This electrical heat-treating furnace is used to heat treat strip steels
Furnaces Widely Used in Heat Treatment of Steels The interior of this roller hearth-treating furnace has cast heating elements on the top, bottom, and side walls.
Furnaces Widely Used in Heat Treatment of Steels Furnace Fixtures Examples of furnace baskets. Fabricated by welding wrought components of a 35%Ni-18%Cr alloy Temperature Control Systems Process temperature should be controlled to within ~ 2.5C. Although this close range is sometimes possible, a more practical control range is nearer 5C. Temperature Sensors Temperature Measurement Temperature Control Three Major Components in A Temperature Control System Temperature Sensors Thermocouples are the most widely used sensors for measuring temperatures of heat treating furnaces. Type K is, by far, the most widely used. Three Major Components in A Temperature Control System Temperature Control A temperature controller must provide sufficient energy to satisfy process requirements, even though operating conditions vary. The controller set point (that represents the desired temperature) is compared with the actual temperature. Based on this comparison, the controller regulates the energy flow to the process. Temperature Measurement Measurement instruments measure the output signal of the temperature sensor & convert it to a temperature indication. Comparison of Annealing, Normalizing, & Quenching Annealing & Normalizing Quenching Slow cooling process Rapid cooling process Softens and weakens metal Hardens and strengthens metal Produces ductility Produces brittleness Reduces internal stresses Causes internal stresses Helps prevent cracking and distortion Increases chances of cracking and distortion
Effects of Annealing, Normalizing, and Quenching Annealing Normalizing Air Quenching Oil Quenching Water Quenching Softer, less strong Harder and stronger More ductile More brittle Less internal stress More internal stress Less distortion, cracking More distortion, cracking