Hydrological cycle is the circulation of water in any of its forms liquid, solid, gas through the major stores of the global system. Water is held in stores such as oceans, ice caps and the soil. Water moves along pathways between these stores by processes such as precipitation, evaporation and runoff.
Hydrological cycle is the circulation of water in any of its forms liquid, solid, gas through the major stores of the global system. Water is held in stores such as oceans, ice caps and the soil. Water moves along pathways between these stores by processes such as precipitation, evaporation and runoff.
Hydrological cycle is the circulation of water in any of its forms liquid, solid, gas through the major stores of the global system. Water is held in stores such as oceans, ice caps and the soil. Water moves along pathways between these stores by processes such as precipitation, evaporation and runoff.
1.0. Hydrological cycle What? Closed or open system? Why? Identify input, transfer, stores & output Diagram to show Hydrological cycle
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE What? Hydrological cycle is the circulation of water in any of its forms liquid, solid, gas through the major stores of the global system; atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
Hydrological cycle Label 1-8 Identify input, outputs, Flows & stores. 1. Evaporation 2. Transpiration 3. Condensation 4. Precipitation 6. Infiltration 5. Run-off/overland flow 8. Groundwater flow/ baseflow 7. Throughflow 7 Input Output flow flow flow flow Output Hydrological cycle Input e.g. precipitation Output e.g. water vapour/ evaporation Stores e.g. ocean Stores e.g. clouds atmosphere Stores e.g. river Stores e.g. soil Transfers or flows Terms: Evaporation Transpiration Condensation Precipitation Run-off/overlandflow Infiltration Throughflow Groundwater or baseflow A Closed system The hydrological cycle is a closed system. Why it is a closed system? At the global scale the hydrological cycle is a closed system since it has inputs or outputs of water. Water is held in stores such as oceans, ice caps and the soil. Water moves along pathways between these stores by processes such as precipitation, evaporation and runoff. In other words, all the water circulates through the stores where the output from one store becomes an input to the next, and so on. Water movement in a Global hydrological cycle Water that falls as rain, snow or ice from atmosphere will infiltrate/soak (1) into the soil. Some of the water that fall onto the ground/earth surface will flow on the surface as surface run-off/overland flow(2) and store as surface stores in lakes, rivers and ice-caps and glaciers. Water that infiltrates into the soil will be taken(3) by plants via roots. Some might continue to flow deep into the soil as percolation(4) and store as groundwater. Water store as groundwater move up the soil via capillary action(5). The water stored in surface storage will enter the soil via seepage (6) forming groundwater storage. The groundwater will eventually flow into ocean via baseflow/groundwater flow (7). Water stored in surface storage in lake, puddles, river etc will flow on the surface of the ground as runoff(8) and joining the ocean. 1.1. The Drainage Basin What? Open or close system? Why? Identify input, outputs, transfer and stores Diagram of a drainage basin Movement of water within drainage basin Processes operating within drainage basin; define, factors influencing & importance Drainage Basin What? An area of land drained by a river and its tributaries. The drainage basin also formed a system.
Is it a closed or opened system? Why?
Drainage Basin 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 Throughfall 7 9 percolation 10 11 bsaeflow 12 13 14 Flow diagram of a drainage basin Drainage basin as an opened system A drainage basin will have inputs and outputs with two other parts of the global cycle, atmosphere and oceans. The drainage basin is therefore an open system since there are movements of both in and out of the system. Water enters as an input from the atmosphere leaves the basin as an output to the ocean or the atmosphere or continuing on through the system. Water movement in a drainage basin Precipitated water may reach the drainage basin through 3 ways. Firstly water may be intercepted & stored by vegetation. Through the process of stemflow and throughfall water previously intercepted by vegetation reaches the surface storage.
Secondly precipitated water may fall directly on surface storage as direct precipitation if there is no vegetation to intercept. In both cases, once the surface storage is filled up with water, precipitated water has 3 options, it can either go up as evaporation, go sideways as surface run-off and flows over the surface to the channel storage or absorbed into the soil and stored in the soil moisture storage through the process of infiltration.
In the soil, water may flow laterally to the channel storage as throughflow or it can percolate down to the groundwater storage once the soil moisture storage is filled up. Some of the groundwater may flow laterally to the channel storage as baseflow or it can seeps or leaks out of the system. These only occur the groundwater storage is full.
Lastly, precipitated water may fall directly on the channel storage as channel precipitation. However some precipitated water may be lost from the drainage basin system through the process of evaporation for water stored in the surface and channel storage and through the process pf transpiration if he water is lost of vegetation.
Process operating within Drainage Basin Terms Definition Precipitation Water in any form which falls form the atmosphere to the surface of the earth surface e.g. ice, rain, snow Channel precipitation Water in any form which falls directly on rivers, streams or channel Direct Precipitation Water in any form which falls directly on the surface storage (lake, pond, puddles) Interception Water that is stored by vegetation i.e. leaves of trees, twigs and branches Throughfall Water either falls through gaps in the vegetation or which drops from leaves, twigs or stems. Stemflow Water that trickles along twigs and branches and finally down the main trunk Terms Definition Evaporation A process by which liquid or solid is changed into gas. In hydrology, the conversion of solid and liquid precipitation (snow, ice and water) into water vapour in the atmosphere. Transpiration A process by which water vapour escapes from living plant through the leaves and enters the atmosphere via stomata. Overlandflow/ surface runoff The movement of water over the ground surface. infiltration The process which water soaks into is absorbed by the soil. throughflow Water moving laterally through the soil. percolation The vertical movement of water in the zone of unsaturated rock or soils. Baseflow/grou ndwater flow The lateral movement of groundwater as it seesp slowly into the bred of the river Capillary rise Suction effect of the dry soil as it moves water form wetter parts of soil to the dry parts of soil. Factors affecting & importance Terms Factors affecting & Importance Precipitation Affect how river behave. Influence inputs & output (streamflow) Rainfall intensity influence route water takes i.e. infiltrate or run-off. Interception 3 components: 1.Interception loss-retained by plant surface later evaporated or absorbed by plant. 2. Throughfall 3. Stemflow surface storage Importance: Slow down transfer of water via run-off (not only vegetation cover also include road, building, drainage,gutter Evaporation Effective: Warm sunny day, windy, surrounding air is dry, present of water on ground or on plant leaves Overland flow Stream flow/channel flow Infiltration Factors affecting amount:
Human activities can affect infiltration Throughflow Soil moisture storage percolation Groundwater storage 1.2. rainfall-discharge relationships within drainage basin Water balance Flood hydrograph Factors affecting flood hydrograph -Climate -drainage basin characteristics
Water balance Soil moisture Surplus: If precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration and the excess is not been used by plants.
Recharge: Replacement of water lost during drier periods.
Field capacity The maximum amount of water soil can hold.
A water surplus can result in wet soils, high river levels and run-off whereas a deficit leads to dry soil, falling river levels and possibly drought.
Water Deficit Evapotranspiration is in excess of precipitation and any previously available moisture has been used, in soil moisture utilisation. Water balance
Importance Why it vary with time and space? Vary with time Vary with space Importance of water balance Flood Hydrograph Antecedent moisture D i s c h a r g e
( m 3 / s )
Bar graph-start, intensity & duration of rainfall Line graph-rivers discharge over time Storm flow: Discharge (most Water reaches Stream as Overland flow & Direct channel Precipitation) from Single storm event. Baseflow: Starting & finishing Level of discharge Representing (maintain Even during low pp) The river flow. Rapid increase In discharge-run-off River reaches Highest level Discharge is falling & River falling to base level. (water flow through Soil to channel via through flow) Lagtime-period between max pp & Peak discharge (delay pp & rise in discharge Due to takes time for pp to flow into river) Storm Hydrograph What? It records the discharge (volume of water in a river) pattern of a river at a specific gauging station over a short period of time, following a single rainfall event.
Importance: 1. Hydrologists assess rate of discharge increase so allowing them to predict flood & make precaution to avoid damage to property & loss of life. 2. Geographical tools that can express character of the river. If the average & extreme behaviour of a river is known, people are in better position to live with it. Factors influencing Storm Hydrograph Climate
prolonged rainfall, ground become saturated & infiltration replaced by run-off. (PP intensity exceeds infiltration capacity)
Snowfall-heavy snowfall occurs water freezes and stop entering river held in storage & river drops. As temp rises rapidly meltwater reaches river. The ground remain frozen for some time & prevent infiltration from occurring.
Temperature & Evapotranspiration:
Size & shape Drainage density Porosity & permeability of soils Rock types Slopes Vegetation types Land use 1.3. RIVER PROCESSES & LANDFORMS PROCESS: River erosion: What? (a) Abrasion/corrasion (b) Solution/corrosion (c) Attrition (d) Hydraulic action River Transportation River Deposition 1. Discharge is reduced following a period of low precipitation
2. As the river approached the sea or lake, velocity is reduced
3. In shallow water, which occurs on the inside of a meander
4. The load of the river suddenly increases caused for example, by debris from landslide.
5. The river overflow its banks causing velocity outside the channel to reduce.
Hjulstrom curve Hjulstrom curve Discharge & Velocity: Discharge:the volume of water in a river passing a measuring point in a given time. It is calculated my multiplying the velocity of the river by the cross- sectional area of the river at measuring point. (cubic metre per seconds or cumecs)
Velocity: the speed of the water flow i.e. the distance travelled per unit time e.g. metres per second. It is influence by three factors: (i) Channel shape in cross section (ii) Roughness of river beds and banks (iii) Channel slope Pattern of flows Turbulent flow: Consists of a series of eddies, both vertical and horizontal in a downstream direction.
Where occur? -Meandering channels with alternating Pool and riffle. -High velocities -Cavitation in which pockets of ir explode under high pressure Laminar flow: Horizontal movement of Water in a series of sheets or laminae, where Layers of water slip past each other. Common in groundwater and glacier Rarely in river. Best condition for it To occur: Shallow channels, smooth straight channels Low velocities Helicoidal flow Downstream spirally on water flow associated with meandering channels. Helicoidal flow Helicoidal core Thalwag Meander river Thalwag Channel types Channel type In this curve the steepest gradients are found in the upper reaches of the river, where sediment input is abundant, bed roughness is high, and channels are small, because we need lots of energy to erode sediment and transport it downstream. Because of that, channels show low sinuosity (there is no energy left to be wasted in a longer channel).
As we go away from the uplifted source we encounter lower slopes, sediment gets redeposited, the channel widens and bed roughness decreases. Deposition will continue until the slope is steep enough so that a balance between erosion and deposition is established, and the river will then flow in meanders. Thus any irregularity in the slope of a river will be temporary on a geological time scale.
The river, its slope and its channel patterns, will change progressively in response to the interaction of uplift, sea level changes, and irregularities in the hardness of the bedrock. A smooth stream profile will have been established after all forces balance. Landforms A water fall & Gorges Waterfall: A steep fall of river water where its course is markedly And suddenly interrupted. A river flow over hard rock meets a Band of less resistant rock or flows Over the edge of a valley As the river approaches the brink of the falls, Velocity increases causing underlying rock To be worn away as water falls on it Through process of hydraulic action & abrasion. In time, the harder rock May become unstable (due to Weight of water and lack of Support and eventually Collapse. Pools & riffles Riffle-areas of deposition Of coarse material creating Areas of shallow water Pool-areas of deeper Water between riffles Point bars/slip-off Sloe: A gently sloping bank On the inside of meander Formed as the result Of deposition areas Where the flow Of water is slow. The material Deposited is eroded from the Outside bank of a meander Whick spiral downstream & Deposited inner bank as point bar Cliff Point bar How pool and riffle lead to development of a meander As water flows over these landforms (pool and riffle) velocity is increases as it passes over the riffled surface while it flows more sluggishly out of deeper pools. The sequence of pools and riffles will continue to develops until the average spacing is 5-7 times the width of the channel.
This regular spacing is said to be as a result of the secondary flow such as helicoidalflow.The helicoidal flow moves material from the outer bend where erosion occurs forming cliff and deposits it on the inner bend of the next bend forming a slip-off slope, this movement increases the sinuosity of the river, producing a regular meandering channel which is about ten times the bed width. Meanders are sinuous winding bends in a river channel which usually occur at gentle gradients in the middle and lower courses of a river. Meanders are sinuous winding bends in a river channel which usually occur at gentle gradients in the middle and lower courses of a river.
Meanders are formed due to the alternating pools and riffles in the channel causing the river to flow from side to side. The flow line of maximum velocity is called a thalweg. The thalweg is directed towards the bank as it flows through the fastest route to get to the mouth. As the thalweg hits the bank it erodes away sediment, creating a river cliff. On the side of the channel with slower flow, the sediment is deposited as the water does not have the capacity to transport it's load any longer, forming a slip off slope or point bar/ alluvial deposits opposite the river cliff. Once the meander is formed, it is maintained by the surface and subsurface flows that corkscrews throughout the cross section of the channel. This is called helical or helicoidal flow. As this process continues, the meanders migrate downstream and gradually widen the valley floor.
Riffles: shallower parts of the channel resulting from the deposition of coarse sediments.
Pools: deeper sections of the channel eroded by turbulent currents. Braided channel Braided channel Floodplains Floodplain-an area od relatively flat land on either side of channel formed by deposition When a river floods. Mostly well developed in lower coarse of a river as river nears the sea Coarsest material Is dropped first, Forming a small Natural embankment Called levees, alongside The channel. With every flooding, It deposits layer of Alluvium (sand, silt & clays) gradually built Up floodplain. Width of Floodplain determined by meander Migrating & lateral erosion, valley floor widen. Edge of floodplains are flanked on both sides by prominent slopes called bluffs. As river spreads Over its floodplain, there Is a sudden increase in both Wetted perimeter &hydraulic radius.
This results in an increase In friction, decrease in velocity & deposition of material Previously held in suspension. Deltas Formation of a delta Delta a landform produced by the deposition of sediment at the mouth Of a river as it enters a sea or lake. As a river flows into area of slow moving water; lake Or sea river velocity decreases Deposition of bedload & suspended Material occur. In addition, the meeting of Fresh & salt water produces An electric charge which causes Clay particles to coagulate (cluster), increasing weight & encourage these particles To settle on sea bed. (fluocculation) Types of delta Arcuate delta: Triangular in Shape with a Smooth coastline Birds foot delta: Fingers of Deposited material Extend out into sea Along line of tributaries Alluvium fans Alluvium fans are fan-shaped landforms similar to deltas but deposited on land. It is formed when rivers coming from steep- sided valleys in upland area enter flatter plain. At such point the river spreads out, decreasing velocity, causing sediment to be deposited.
Human impact Effects landuse changes on catchment flows, stores and stream flows 1.Agriculture-changes in agr affect infiltration, surface run-off, infiltration & percolation. E.g. overgrazing. (compact soil trampling of animals & removal veg-eaten) -Ploughing, application fertiliser & equipment alter texture, storage & infiltration capacility of soil. -land drainage schemes .e.g. cutting deeper ditches, laying pipes lower water table & accelerate transfer of water to stream
2. Changing forest cover-afforestation slow down runoff result lower stream discharge, increase transpiration losses. Deforestation-cutting & burning down all trees-decrease infiltration, soil moisture storage, increase overland flow. Reforestation-lower water table-higher interception, decrease overland flow & higher infiltration rate.
3. Ubanisation- impermeable ground-less infiltration, reduce ground water storage and reduce surface run off and lower ET, overland flow increase.
4. Groundwater abstraction- purpose; industrial use, domestic and irrigation. -irrigation-fall in water table e.g. Texas irrigation reduced water table 50 m.
5. Water storage-dam and reservoir-purpose is to control flow to reduce floods & supplement river flows during periods of below average rainfall-greater water loses and increase groundwater levels.
Floods Define-a high flow of water which overtops the banks of a river. Causes-large input of water to river by quickflow processes: prolonged heavy rainfall-saturated, intense rainfall, snowmelt with frozen soil, steep valley sides, an impermeable bedrock or thin soils, lack of vegetation, urbanisation, silting of river, drains, gutters and underground sewer. Effects: Primary: Loss of life, contaiminated drinking water, rapid erosion and undercutting of bridges, crops washed by floodwater & sediment deposited in flooded locations
Secondary: Diseases water borne sewage and toxins, disrupted services; gas and electricity, disruption of communications
Tertiary: -changes to river and drainage channels, temporary unemployment until services are restored, farmland being covered by new sediments, insurance rates being increased for floodplain inhabitants Forecasting: Likelihood or statistical probability of flooding occuring can calculated using a flood frequency graph, where the records of a rivers discharge over the longest time available are ranked from the highest peak to the lowest discharge recorded.
Preventation Case study Mississippi 1993, Bangladesh 1998