Chapter 6 :Steady-state Cornering

By
Dr. Gan Leong Ming
Semester 2012/2013-II
Introduction
Closed-loop system : responsiveness of a
vehicle to driver input, measure of the
vehicle-driver combination

Open-loop system : vehicle characteristic
measurement, vehicle response to specific
steering inputs/ Directional response
behavior
Introduction
Understeer gradient :
Measure of performance under steady state
conditions
Used to measure open-loop system

Open-loop cornering :
Or directional response behavior
Analyze turning at low speed and then high speed
condition
Low Speed Turning
Low speed parking lot maneuvers
Tires need not develop lateral forces
No slip angle


Low Speed Turning
Steer angles for low speed turning (radians) is
) t/2 R (
L
) t/2 R (
L
i
o

~
+
~
o
o
Average angle of the front wheels (assuming
small angles) is defined as Ackermann Angle
R
L
= o
Low Speed Turning Ackermann Steering/Geometry
As a result of track width the tires on the inside
and outside of a vehicle in a turn roll on different
radii.

A vehicle with Ackermann steering will produce
differing steer angles. The inside tire is steered at
a greater angle than the outside tire of the
steered axle if Ackermann steer is achieved.

Varying amounts of Ackermann are achieved and
are presented as a % of true (100%) Ackermann.
Low Speed Turning Ackermann Steering/Geometry
Low Speed Turning Ackermann Steering/Geometry
Low Speed Turning Ackermann Steering/Geometry
Determine by Track width and wheel base length

Achieved through steering arm angles, tie rod angles and
selected other variables.

Front steer vehicles (steering in front of the axle) tend to
have greater space restriction on the availability for
Ackermann correction.

Tire selection and vehicle goals may determine final
Ackermann goals (eg. tire wear).

The steering torques tend to increase consistently with
steer angle natural feel in the feedback through the
steering wheel
High Speed Cornering Tire cornering forces
Turning equations differ because lateral acceleration will
be present

Tire must develop lateral force, which cause lateral slip
as it rolls

SLIP ANGLE : angle between direction of heading and
direction of travel
High Speed Cornering Tire cornering forces
For low slip angles (5 degrees or less), the cornering force
is described by
o
o
C F
y
=
Cornering stiffness
Cornering stiffness depends on
Tire size
Type (radial, bias ply)
Number of plies
Cord angles
Wheel width
Thread and etc
High Speed Cornering Tire cornering forces
Tire load and inflation pressure will influence the cornering
force
Speed does not influence the cornering force
High Speed Cornering Tire cornering forces
High Speed Cornering Tire cornering forces
Tire cornering properties may described by cornering
coefficient
/deg) /N (N /F C CC
z y z o o
=
Usually largest at light loads

Diminishing continuously as the load reaches its rated
value (refer to Tire & Rim Association rated load)

At 100% load, CC

0.2 N
y
/N
z
/deg
High Speed Cornering Cornering Equations
For analysis purpose, vehicle is represent by the bicycle
model as below
High Speed Cornering Cornering Equations
At high speeds, radius of turn is much larger than
the wheelbase

Turning radius is small

Different between outside and inside steer angles
is negligible

Cornering force equivalent to both wheels

Same assumption for rear wheel
High Speed Cornering Cornering Equations
turn the of Radius R
velocity Forward V
vehicle the of Mass M
axle rear at the force ) (cornering Lateral F
axle front at the force ) (cornering Lateral F
/R MV F F F
yr
yf
2
yr yf y
=
=
=
=
=
= + =

High Speed Cornering Cornering Equations

In a moment equilibrium about the center of gravity,
/R) (V Mc/L F /R) (V Mb/L F
L/b F c) (b F 1) (c/b F /R MV
equation, previous back to ng Substituti
c/b F F
Then
0 c F - b F
2
yf
2
yr
yr yr yr
2
yr yf
yr yf
= =
= + = + =
=
=
The portion of the vehicle
mass on rear axle, W
r
/g
The portion of the vehicle
mass on front axle, W
f
/g
Lateral acceleration
High Speed Cornering Cornering Equations
Since , hence
o
o
C F
y
=
gR) /(C V W
and
gR) /(C V W
r
2
r r
f
2
f f
o
o
o
o
=
=
Based on the bicycle model analysis,
gR
V
C
W
C
W
R
L
3 . 57
gR C
V W
gR C
V W
R
L
3 . 57
finally and
- L/R 3 . 57
2
r
r
f
f
r
2
r
f
2
f
r f
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ =
+ =
o o
o o
o o
W
f
refer to one tire, not two
W
r
refer to one tire, not two
ATTENTION!!
High Speed Cornering Understeer Gradient
(g) on accelerati Lateral a
(deg/g) gradient Understeer K
where
Ka
R
L
3 . 57
form shortland a in
gR
V
C
W
C
W
R
L
3 . 57
y
y
2
r
r
f
f
=
=
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
o o
Describes how the steer angle of the
vehicle must changed with the radius
of R, or lateral acceleration V
2
/(gR)
High Speed Cornering Cornering Equations
Case 1 : Neutral Steer
r f r r f f
0 K /C W /C W o o
o o
= = =
No change in steer angle will be required as the cornering
speed varied

Steer angle required equivalent to Ackerman Angle, 57.3
L/R

Balance on the vehicle such that force of the lateral
acceleration at the CG causes an identical increase in slip
angle at both the front and rear wheels
High Speed Cornering Cornering Equations
Case 2 : Understeer Steer
r f r r f f
0 K /C W /C W o o
o o
> > >
Steer angle will have to increase with speed in proportion
to K (deg/g) times the lateral acceleration in gs

Increase linearly with lateral acceleration and with square
of the speed

Lateral acceleration at the CG causes the front wheels to
slip sideways to a greater extent than at the rear
wheels
High Speed Cornering Cornering Equations
Case 3 : Oversteer Steer
r f r r f f
0 K /C W /C W o o
o o
< < <
Steer angle will have to decrease with speed (and lateral
acceleration) is increased

Lateral acceleration at the CG causes the rear wheels to
increase more than at the front

Outward drift at the rear turns the front wheels inward,
thus diminishing the radius of turn

The process continues unless the steer angle is reduced
to maintain the radius of turn
High Speed Cornering Cornering Equations
Characteristic Speed
- The speed at which the steer angle
required to negotiate any turn is
twice the Ackerman Angle
Lg/K 57.3 V
char
=
Critical Speed
- Will cause the vehicle unstable
- K in negative in value
- Dependent on wheelbase
- Long-wheelbase vehicles have a
higher critical speed
- Still can be driven at speeds less than
the critical
- Directionally unstable at and above
the critical speed
- More apparent through its influence on
lateral acceleration gain and yaw gain
Lg/K 57.3 - V
crit
=
High Speed Cornering Lateral Acceleration Gain
Purpose of steering 1 : Produce lateral acceleration
(deg/sec)
57.3Lg
KV
1
57.3Lg
V
a
gain, n accelertio Lateral
2
2
y
+
=
o
K=0 (neutral steer), acceleration gain V
2

K>0 (understeer), acceleration gain is always less than the neutral
steer

K<0 (oversteer), increasing the lateral acceleration gain
Dependent on V
2
, equal to 1 when reaches the critical speed (infinite
gain)
High Speed Cornering Yaw Velocity Gain
Purpose of steering 2 : change the heading angle by
developing a yaw velocity (yaw rate)
57.3Lg
KV
1
V/L r
angle, steering to velocity Yaw
(deg/sec) 57.3V/R r
angle), heading in rotation of (rate velocity Yaw
2
+
=
=
o
High Speed Cornering Yaw Velocity Gain
Ratio represent a gain which proportional to velocity in
the case of neutral steer
Infinite
Significance as the speed at
which the vehicle is most
responsive in yaw
High Speed Cornering Sideslip angle
For zero lateral acceleration, rear wheel tracks
inboard of the front wheel

Rear wheel must drift outboard as the lateral
acceleration increases

To develop necessary slip angles on the rear tires

Sideslip angle : the angle between the longitudinal
axis and the local direction of travel

Will be different at every point on a car during
cornering
High Speed Cornering Sideslip angle
Sideslip angle is defined as positive for low
speed turn

The direction of travel is oriented clockwise (for
this case)
High Speed Cornering Sideslip angle
For high speed turn, the slip angle on the rear
wheels causes the sideslip angle at the CG to
become negative
High Speed Cornering Sideslip angle
Sideslip angle,
) gR C ( V W c/R 3 . 57
- 57.3c/R
r
2
r
r
o
|
o |
=
=
Speed when the sideslip angle become zero is
turn of radius the of t independen * *
/W cC 3 . 57
r r o |
g V =
High Speed Cornering Static Margin
Provides a measure of the steady-state
handling behavior

Determined by the point on the vehicle
where a side force will produce no steady-
state yaw velocity (neutral steer point)

Neutral steer line : locus of points in x-z
plane along which external lateral forces
produce no steady-state yaw velocity
High Speed Cornering Static Margin
Neutral Steer Point

The theoretical point along the longitudinal axis of
the vehicle through which a lateral force can be
applied without a yaw response.


A neutral steer point in front of the center of
gravity results in a steady-state over steer.


A neutral steer point after of the center of gravity
results in a steady-state understeer
High Speed Cornering Static Margin
Static margin is defined as the distance the neutral steer
point falls behind the CG, normalized by the wheelbase
e/L Margin Static =
Typical vehicle static margin range : 0.05 to 0.07 behind the CG
Problem
A car has a weight of 862.3 kg front axle and 704 kg on the rear with a wheelbase
of 2.56 m. The tires have the following cornering stiffness

Load (N) Cornering stiffness (N/deg) cornering coefficient (N/N/deg)
1100 299 0.299
2200 546 0.274
3300 775 0.269
4400 1081 0.268
5500 1264 0.236
6600 1475 0.235

Determine the following cornering properties for the vehicle:

1.Ackerman steer angles for 180, 80, 45 and 25 m turn radius
2.Understeer gradient
3.Characteristic speed
4.Lateral acceleration gain at 85 km/hr
5.Yaw velocity gain at 85 km/hr
6.Sideslip angle at the CG on an 220 m turn at 85 km/hr
7.Static margin