Types Of Transducers

Resistive Position Transducer:

The principle of the resistive position transducer
is that the physical variable under measurement
causes a resistance change in the sensing
element.

Resistive Position Transducer(contd)
A common requirement in industrial measurement
and control work is to be able to sense the
position of an object, or the distance it has
moved.






fig.(1) Resistive positive transducer, or displacement
transducer.


Resistive Position Transducer(contd)
One type of displacement transducer uses a
resistance element with a sliding contact or wiper
linked to the object being monitored. Thus, the
resistance between the slider and one end of the
resistance element depends on the position of the
object. Figure (1-a) shows the construction of this
type of transducer. Figure b shows a typical
method of use. The output voltage depends on
the wiper position and therefore is a function of
the shaft position. This voltage may be applied to
a voltmeter calibrated in inches for visual display.

Resistive Position Transducer(contd)
Typical commercial units provide a choice of
maximum shaft strokes from an inch or less to 5
feet or more. Deviation from linearity of the
resistance versus-distance specification can be
as low as 0.1% to 1.0%.
Consider Fig. (1-b). If the circuit is unloaded, the
output voltage V
0
is a certain fraction of V
T,
depending on the position of the wiper:

2 1
2 0
R R
R
V
V
T
+
=
Resistive Position Transducer(contd)
In its application to resistive position sensors, this
equation shows that the output voltage is directly
proportional to the position of the wiper, if the
resistance of the transducer is distributed
uniformly along the length of travel of the wiper,
that is, if the element is perfectly linear.

EXAMPLE 1
A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of
3.0 in. is applied in the circuit of Fig. The total
resistance of the potentiometer is 5 k , and the
applied voltage V
T
=5.0V. When the wiper is 0.9
in. from B, what is the value of the output voltage
V
0
?
Solution
O = O = 1500 5000
. 0 . 3
. 9 . 0
2
x
in
in
R
V V x V
R
R
V
T
T
5 . 1 0 . 5
5000
1500
2
0
=
O
O
= =
EXAMPLE 2
A resistive position transducer with a resistance of
5000 and a shaft stroke of 5.0 in. is used in the
arrangement of Fig. (4). Potentiometer R
3
R
4
is
also 5000 , and V
T
= 5.0 V. The initial position to
be used as a reference point is such that R
1
=R
2

(i.e.. the shaft is at midstroke). At the start of the
test, potentiometer R
3
R
4
is adjusted so that the
bridge is balanced (V
E
=0). Assuming that the
object being monitored will move a maximum
distance of 0.5 in. toward A, what will the new
value of V
E
be?
Solution
If the wiper moves 0.5 in. toward A from
midstroke, it will be 3.0 in. from B.

O = O = = 300 5000
0 . 5
0 . 3
2
in
in
R
T T E R E
V
R R
R
V
R R
R
V V V
4 3
4
2 1
2
4 2
+

+
= =
V V V 5 . 0 ) 5 (
5000
2500
) 5 (
5000
3000
=
|
.
|

\
|
O
O

|
.
|

\
|
O
O
=
Resistive Position Transducer(contd)
This answer is a measure of the distance and
direction that the object has traveled.





Fig (2) Basic voltage divider and resistance bridge circuits
2-Strain Gauge Transducers
The strain gauge is an example of a passive
transducer the; uses electrical resistance
variation in wires to sense the strain produced by
a force on the wires. It is a very versatile detector
and transducer for measuring weight pressure
mechanical force, or displacement.

Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)
The construction of a bonded strain gauge Fig (3)
shows a fine-wire element looped back and forth on a
mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the
member undergoing stress. A tensile stress tens to
elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and
decrease its cross-sectional area. The combined
effect is an increase in resistance as seen from
Eq. (1)


(1)
Where
= the specific resistance of the conductor material
in ohm
L = the length of the conductor in meters
A = the area of the conductor in square meters

A
L
R

=

Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)







Fig (3) Resistive strain gauges; wire construction
Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)
As a consequence of strain two physical qualities are of
particular interest: (1) the change in gauge resistance and
(2) the change in length. The relationship between these
two variables expressed as a ratio is called the gauge
factor.
K. Expressed mathematically as


(2)
Where
K = the gauge factor
R = the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
= the change in initial resistance in ohms
L = the initial length in meters (without strain)
= the change in initial length in meters


L L
R R
K
/
/
A
A
=
L A
R A
Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)
Note that the term IL in the denominator is the
same as the unit strain G. Therefore. Eq. (2) can
be written as


(3)
Robert Hooke pointed out in the seventeenth
century that for many common materials there is
a constant, ratio between stress and strain.


G
R R
K
/ A
=
L A
Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)
Stress is defined as the internal force per unit
area. The stress equation is

(4)

Where
S = the stress in kilograms per Square meter
F = the force in kilograms
A = the area in square meters

A
F
S =
Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)
The constant of proportionality between stress
and strain for a linear stress-strain curve is known
as the modulus of elasticity of the material. E or
Young's modulus. Hooke's law is written as

(5)
Where
E =Young's modulus in kilograms per square
meter
S = the stress in kilograms per square meter
G = the strain (no units)


G
S
E =
Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)
For strain gauge applications, a' high degree of
sensitivity is very desirable. A high gauge factor
means a relatively large resistance change for a
given strain. Such a change is more easily
measured than a small resistance change.
Relatively small changes in strain can be sensed.
Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)
EXAMPLE 3
A resistant strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2
is fastened to a steel member, which is subjected
to a strain of 1 X 10
-6
. If the original resistance
value of the gauge is 130 . Calculate the change
in resistance.
Solution

O = O = = A
A
=
A
A
=

260 ) 130 ( ) 10 1 ( ) 2 (
/
/
/
6
x KGR R
G
R R
L L
R R
K
Example 4
A round steel bar, 0.02 m in diameter and 0.40 m
in length, is subjected to a tensile force of 33.000
kg, where E=2x10
10
kg/m
2
. Calculate the elonga-
tion, L, in meters.

Solution:

m x
m kg x m x
m x kg
AE
FL
L
L L
A F
G
S
E
m x
m D
A
3
2 10 2 4
2 4
2 2
10 1 . 2
0
) / 10 2 ( ) 10 14 . 3 (
40 . 0 000 . 33
/
/
10 14 . 3
2
02 . 0
2
(

=
= = A
A
= =
= |
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
t t
Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)
Semiconductor strain gauges are often used in
high-output transducers as load cells. These
gauges are extremely sensitive, with gauge
factors from 50 to 200. They are however,
affected by temperature fluctuations and often
behave in a nonlinear manner. The strain gauge
is generally used as one arm of a bridge. The
simple arrangement shown in Fig. (2-a) can be
employed when temperature variations are not
sufficient to affect accuracy significantly, or in
applications for which great accuracy is not
required.

Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)
The strain gauge is generally used as one arm of
a bridge. The simple arrangement shown in Fig.
(4-a) can be employed when temperature varia-
tions are not sufficient to affect accuracy
significantly, or in applications for which great
accuracy is not required.

Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)
However, since gauge resistance is affected by
temperature, any change of temperature will
cause a change in the bridge balance conditions.
This effect can cause an error in the strain
measurement. Thus, when temperature variation
is significant, or when unusual accuracy is
required an arrangement such as that illustrated
in Fig. (4) may be used.
Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)
Here two gauges of the same type are mounted
on the item being tested close enough together
that both are subjected to the same temperature.
Consequently, the temperature will cause the
same change of resistance in the two, and the
bridge balance will not be affected by the
temperature. However one of the two gauges is
mounted so that its sensitive direction is at right
Angles to the direction of the strain.
Strain Gauge
Transducers(contd)
The resistance of this dummy gauge is not affected by
the deformation of the material. Therefore, it acts like
a passive resistance (such as R
3
of Fig. 4-b) with
regard to the strain measurement. Since only one
gauge responds to the strain, the strain causes bridge
unbalance just as in the case of the single gauge.







Fig (4) Basic gauge bridge circuits.