Compendium Review

Major Topic Two: Movement

Table of Contents

Part 1
• The Skeleton System
• Growth & Repair
• Axial Skeleton
• Appendicular Skeleton
• Articulations

Part 2
• Muscular System
• Skeleton Muscle Fiber Contractions
• Whole Muscle Contraction
• Muscular Disorders and Homeostasis
• The Skeleton System
• Growth & Repair
• Axial Skeleton
• Appendicular Skeleton
• Articulations

Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_system

 The Skeleton System
The skeleton system helps support the body,
protect internal body parts, produces blood
cells, stores fat and mineral, and aids in body
movement. There are a total of 206 bones in an
adult body. The long shaft of a bone is known
as the diaphysis and is coated with periosteum,
a fibrous layer which houses nerves, blood and
lymphatic vessels. The diaphysis contains the
medullary cavity (home to yellow marrow),
which is made of compact bone and lined with
a vascular membrane called the endosteum. At
each end is a large region called the epiphysis
which is made of spongy bone and house the
red bone marrow. The ends of the bones, the
epiphysis, are coated with articular cartilage at
the joints.

Pic from Human Biology Pg 209

The Skeleton System
Compact bones are densely made
of osteons, or tubular units. The
osteocytes, or bone cells, in the
osteon are found in chambers
called lacunae and are held
together by cytoplasm. Between
the rings of lacunae is matrix which
contains tiny canals known as
canaliculi that help connect the
rings of lacunae together and to the
central canal. In the central canal,
osteocytes exchange waste and
nutrients via blood vessels. Spongy
bones are made of trabeculae, or
thin plates that are unevenly
spaced apart. In the spaces are red
bone marrow, tissue which
produces blood cells. Spongy bones
are lighter than compact bones but
are still as tough.
Pic from Human Biology Pg 209
 The Skeleton System
Cartilage serves as a padding material for joints and contains fibers (collagenous
and elastic) and matrix (gel material) which yield flexibility. Cartilage contains no
nerves or blood vessels, but cells known as chondrocytes which are found in the
lacunae. The 3 types of cartilage are hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic
cartilage. Hyaline’s matrix contains a significant amount of collagen fibers, and is
firm but flexible. Fibrocartilage has thick collagen fiber rows, is strong, and can
withstand pressure. It is found in places that succumb to a lot of tension and
pressure like in the vertebrae disks and knees. Elastic cartilage is the most
flexible containing the most amount of elastin fibers in the matrix. Ligaments,
which connect bones to each other, are made of fibrous connective tissue. Fibrous
connective tissue also makes up tendons which are responsible for connecting
muscles to bones.

Pic from Human Biology Pg 209

• The Skeleton System
• Growth & Repair
• Axial Skeleton
• Appendicular Skeleton
• Articulations

Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone#Formation

 Growth & Repair
The formation of bones is known as ossification. Bone growth is possible due to the following
cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts form bones by releasing osteoid
(organic part of matrix) and promote mineralization of the matrix. Osteocytes are mature
osteoblasts which aid in bone maintenance. Osteoclasts are responsible for bone resorption.
They remove mineralized matrix, thus removing bone tissue.

Pic from
Human Biology
Pg 210

Intramembranous ossification is the classification for bones that form between fibrous tissue.
During fetal development, osteoblasts are formed from connective tissue cells and release
osteoid, mixing with calcium salts to bring about calcification. The bone formation process
takes place in the spongy bone, where it is coated by a periosteum, compact bone forms and
encloses the spongy bone. This process is used in healing fractured bones.
 Growth & Repair
Another way bone growth occurs is by endochondral ossification. Calcified bone matrix
replaces cartilage, and on the inside the bone forms from the center outward towards
the ends.

The above diagram shows the steps as follows: the chondrocytes (cells) lay down
hyaline cartilage; periosteum forms producing osteoblasts; the bone collar (compact
bone) is formed by osteoblasts releasing osteoid which undergoes calcification; blood
vessels transport the osteoblasts to the ossification center where spongy bone is
formed; osteoclasts absorb spongy bone creating the medullary cavity; the secondary
ossification centers are created in the epiphysis after birth; articular cartilage and
cartilage at the epiphyseal plate are present; the growth plate separates the primary
center from each secondary center and this accounts for longitudinal growth in children
Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone#Formation and adolescents.
 Growth & Repair
Four distinct zones take place during endochondral ossification.
1. Resting Zone: next to epiphysis, contains cartilage
2. Proliferating Zone: chondrocytes undergo mitosis producing
new cells
3. Degenerating Zone: cartilage cells dye off
4. Ossification Zone: formation of bone

epiphysis

Pic from Human Biology Pg 211

 Growth & Repair
The growth of bones is affected by hormones (chemical messengers). Calcium, which aids in
bone strength and growth, is absorbed in the intestinal tract by a hormone derived from
vitamin D (converted in kidneys). In addition, cells metabolic activity is stimulated by thyroid
hormone which in turn helps promote growth of epiphyseal plates through growth hormone.
The amount of hormones distributed throughout the bloodstream has a direct correlation on
bone growth. Too little and dwarfism may result, too much and gigantism may result.
Exercise helps stimulate osteoblasts to form compact bone in particular area’s, keeping
bones strong but not too thick.

Pic from Human Biology

Pg 212 &
www.lifespan.org/.../ima
ges/en/17285.jpg

Bone remodeling is a term used to describe bone renewal, the constant bone breakdown by
osteoclasts and bone buildup by osteoblasts. This process helps maintain bone homeostasis,
keeping it strong. If bone is generated too fast (Paget’s Disease), it becomes soft and is
vulnerable to breakage and deformities. Blood calcium levels are regulated by parathyroid
hormone (speeds up bone recycling) and calcitonin (opposite PTH). Once one reaches about
middle age, a condition known as osteoporosis can set in. Osteoporosis is a decrease in bone
mass resulting in weakened and brittle bones. Exercise, calcium, and vitamin D can all help
 Growth & Repair
After a bone is fractured the repair
process takes several months and 4
steps: hematoma, fibrocartilaginous
callus, bony callus, and remodeling.
Hematoma is an accumulation of
clotted blood and is the first step that
takes place to healing fractured bones.
After a fracture, blood vessels are
ruptured and blood accumulates in the
break of the bone for about seven
hours. The next step, fibrocartilaginous
callus, is when the tissue repair begins
to fill the fractured part of the bone.
This process takes about three weeks.
The third step, bony callus, takes
about three to four month to complete.
Trabeculae of spongy bone is formed
by osteoblasts and fibrocartilage callus
is transformed to bony callus to aid in
fusing the broken bones together. The
final step, remodeling, is the formation
of new compact bone by osteoblasts
and the absorption of spongy bone by
osteoclasts, The result is a new
Pic from Human Biology Pg 214
medullary cavity.
• The Skeleton System
• Growth & Repair
• Axial Skeleton
• Appendicular Skeleton
• Articulations

Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_skeleton

 Pic from Human

Axial Skeleton
Biology Pg 216

The skull, hyoid

bone, vertebral
column, and the rib
cage are all bones
that belong to the
axial skeleton. The
skull is formed by
the cranium which
protects the brain.
Fully formed
craniums consist of
eight bones,
whereas in infants
the cranium is not
fully formed so some
of their cranium
bones are joined by
fontanels, or
Themembranous
sinuses are air spaces and rimmed with mucous. The mastoid sinuses drain to the
middle part of the ear. The forehead is formed by the frontal lobe, the sides of the head
regions.
are formed by the parietal bones, and the back of the head is formed by the occipital
bone. The spinal cord passes through an opening at the bottom of the cranium known
as the foramen magnum, where it becomes the brain stem. The temporal bones have
an opening called the external auditory canal for the ears. The sphenoid bones help
form the eye sockets and complete the sides of the cranium. The ethmoid bone helps
form the nasal septum.
 Axial Skeleton
The mandible is a facial bone known as the lower jaw. The maxillae is the
upper portion of a jaw and both the mandible and maxillae house teeth. The
cheek bones are called zygomatic bones and the nose is formed by the nasal
bones. The forehead shape is from the frontal bone. The hyoid bone is
attached to the larynx (voice box) by a membrane. Muscles that aid in
swallowing are attached to the hyoid bone.

Pic from Human Biology Pg 217

 Axial Skeleton
The are 33 vertebrae in the vertebral column,
and the spinal cord passes through the
column. Between each vertebrae are
intervertebral disks which act as a padding and
absorb shock/pressure; made of fibrocartilage.
The vertebral column is organized into five
parts. Cervical curvature accounts for the first
seven vertebrae; the first being the atlas
(holds head up) and the second being the axis
(aids in head rotation). The twelve vertebrae in
the thoracic curvature are long, thin, and
attach to the ribs. Lumbar curvature accounts
for five thick vertebrae while the sacrum’s five
vertebrae are fused and form the pelvic
curvature. At the bottom of the column is the
coccyx, or tail bone, which consists of three to
five fused vertebrae. The vertebral column get
strength from its curve. People with scoliosis
have a sideways curve that is abnormal.
Pic from Human
Biology Pg 218
 Axial Skeleton
The thoracic cage (rib
cage) protects the heart
and lungs, and is made
of thoracic vertebrae,
ribs, cartilage, and the
sternum. There are 12
ribs that come of the
thoracic vertebrae in the
vertebral column and the
top 7 ribs connect to the
sternum. The sternum
(breast bone) is a
vertical bone that
protects the heart and
lungs. The manubrium,
body, and xiphoid
process make up the
sternum. True ribs are
connected to the
sternum by costal
cartilages, whereas false
Pic from
Human ribs are connected by
Biology Pg
219 common cartilage.
• The Skeleton System
• Growth & Repair
• Axial Skeleton
• Appendicular Skeleton
• Articulations

Pic from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appendicular_skeleton

 Appendicular Skeleton
The appendicular skeleton consists of the
shoulders down and the pelvic down. The
scapula (shoulder blade) and the clavicle
(collarbone) exist in the left and right sides
of the body known as the pectoral girdles.
The scapula is a shoulder blade bone that
attaches to clavicle via the acromion
process. The humerus, single bone in upper
arm, joins with the scapula via the glenoid
cavity. Ligaments help stabilize this joint
because it is a popular site of dislocation
due to the small glenoid cavity. The rotator
cuff consists of tendons that start at the
scapula and extend downward. In the
forearm is the radius and ulna which attach
at the elbow to the humerus via the
capitulum and trochlea.

Pic from
The wrist contains 8 carpel bones; 5 are metacarpal
Human
Biology Pg
and spread out to form the palm part of the hands.
220 The fingers and thumb bones are known as the
phalanges.
Appendicular Skeleton
The pelvis is made of the pelvic girdle (large hip
bones known as coxal bones), sacrum, and coccyx,
attaches the legs, and bears body weight. The coxal
bones are made of the ilium (largest part, bigger in
women), the ischium (we sit on), and the pubis (both
pubis bones are joined by the pubic symphysis). The
acetabulum is the hip socket where the femur
(thighbone) joins with the coxal bone. The greater
trochanter at the top of the femur and the lesser
trochanter on the inside if the top of the femur allow
for muscle attachment. The femur ends in a medial
condyle and a lateral epicondyle which join the tibial
tuberosity (top of tibia). The area of connection is at
the patella, or kneecap. The smaller bone in the
lower leg is called the fibula; it attaches to the tibial
tuberosity and ends in the lateral malleolus at the
ankle. The medial malleolus is the end of the tibia
and accounts for the inside ankle bulge. The ankle
has 7 tarsal bones, the talus (one of the tarsal
bones) is attached to the tibia and fibula, and the
heal bone (calcaneus) which supports body weight.
The end of the 5 metatarsal bones form the ball of
the foot, and the ends of the feet are known as
phalanges, or toes.
Pic from Human
Biology Pg 221
• The Skeleton System
• Growth & Repair
• Axial Skeleton
• Appendicular Skeleton
This picture shows synovial
• Articulations joint movements.

Pic from
Human
Biology
Pg 223
 Articulations
Bones are joined together at fibrous joints which aid in flexibility. The sutures are a
form of fibrous joints which are immovable in between cranial bones. Cartilaginous
joints have some flexibility. Synovial joints are the most flexible and are filled with
synovial fluid in the joint cavity. Above the cavity is articular cartilage and below is
menisci (sections of hyaline cartilage). Joints are supported by ligaments which are
responsible for connecting bones. Bursae are sacs filled with fluid that offer cushion
around joints and in areas between bones and muscles.

Synovial Joint

Pic from Human Biology Pg 222

 Works Cited
"Appendicular skeleton." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 1 Apr 2008, 03:16 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc. 1 Apr 2008
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appendicular_skeleton&oldid=202964230>.
"Axial skeleton." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 27 Feb 2008, 03:42 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 1
Apr 2008
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Axial_skeleton&oldid=194340644>.
"Bone." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 1 Apr 2008, 11:31 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 1 Apr 2008
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone&oldid=203265526>.
Lifespan.com. Osteoporosis and Aging. Accessed 1 Apr 2008.
<www.lifespan.org/.../images/en/17285.jpg>
Mader, Sylvia S. Human Biology. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, 2008. Pages 207-225.
"Skeleton." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 1 Apr 2008, 18:08 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 2 Apr
2008 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skeleton&oldid=203093039>.