Radio Wave

Mobile Radio Propagation
Copyright 2003, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved.
Outline
Speed, Wavelength, Frequency

Types of Waves
Radio Frequency Bands
Propagation Mechanisms
Radio Propagation Effects
Free-Space Propagation
Land Propagation
Path Loss
Fading: Slow Fading / Fast Fading
Delay Spread
Doppler Shift
Co-Channel Interference
The Near-Far Problem
Digital Wireless Communication System
Analog and Digital Signals
Modulation Techniques
Speed, Wavelength, Frequency

Light speed = Wavelength x Frequency
= 3 x 108 m/s = 300,000 km/s
System
AC current
Frequency
60 Hz
Wavelength
5,000 km
FM radio
100 MHz
3m
Cellular
800 MHz
37.5 cm
Ka band satellite
20 GHz
15 mm
Ultraviolet light
1015 Hz
10-7 m
Types of Waves
Ionosphere
(80 - 720 km)
Sky wave
Mesosphere
(50 - 80 km)
Space wave
Ground wave
Earth
Stratosphere
(12 - 50 km)
Troposphere
(0 - 12 km)
4
Radio Frequency Bands

Classification Band Initials
Frequency Range
Extremely low
ELF
< 300 Hz
Infra low
ILF
300 Hz - 3 kHz
Very low
VLF
3 kHz - 30 kHz
Low
LF
30 kHz - 300 kHz
Medium
MF
300 kHz - 3 MHz
Ground/Sky wave
High
HF
3 MHz - 30 MHz
Sky wave
Very high
VHF
30 MHz - 300 MHz
Ultra high
UHF
300 MHz - 3 GHz
Super high
SHF
3 GHz - 30 GHz
Extremely high
EHF
30 GHz - 300 GHz
Tremendously high THF
Characteristics
Ground wave
Space wave
300 GHz - 3000 GHz
Propagation Mechanisms
Reflection
Propagation wave impinges on an object which is large as

compared to wavelength
- e.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
Diffraction
Radio path between transmitter and receiver

obstructed by surface with sharp irregular edges
Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS (line of sight)
does not exist
Scattering
Objects smaller than the wavelength of the

propagation wave
- e.g. foliage, street signs, lamp posts
Radio Propagation Effects

Building
Direct Signal
Reflected Signal
hb
Diffracted
Signal
Transmitter
hm
Receiver
Free-space Propagation
hb
hm
Transmitter
Distance d
Receiver
The received signal power at distance d:
Pr
AeGtPt
4d 2
where Pt is transmitting power, Ae is effective area, and Gt is the

transmitting antenna gain. Assuming that the radiated power is uniformly
distributed over the surface of the sphere.
Antenna Gain
For a circular reflector antenna

Gain G = ( D / )2
= net efficiency (depends on the electric field distribution over the
antenna aperture, losses, ohmic heating , typically 0.55)
D = diameter
thus, G = ( D f /c )2, c = f (c is speed of light)
Example:
Antenna with diameter = 2 m, frequency = 6 GHz, wavelength = 0.05 m

G = 39.4 dB
Frequency = 14 GHz, same diameter, wavelength = 0.021 m

G = 46.9 dB
* Higher the frequency, higher the gain for the same size antenna
Land Propagation
The received signal power:
Gt Gr Pt
Pr
L
where Gr is the receiver antenna gain,
L is the propagation loss in the channel, i.e.,
L = L P LS LF
Fast fading
Slow fading
Path loss
10
Path Loss (Free-space)
Definition of path loss LP :
Pt
LP ,
Pr
Path Loss in Free-space:
LPF (dB) 32 .45 20 log10 f c ( MHz ) 20 log10 d (km),

where fc is the carrier frequency.
This shows greater the fc , more is the loss.
11
Path Loss (Land Propagation)
Simplest Formula:
Lp = A d-
where
A and : propagation constants
d : distance between transmitter and receiver
: value of 3 ~ 4 in typical urban area
12
Example of Path Loss (Free-space)

Path Loss in Free-space
Path Loss Lf (dB)
130
fc=150MHz
120
fc=200MHz
110
fc=400MHz
100
fc=800MHz
90
fc=1000MHz
80
fc=1500MHz
70
0
10
15
20
25
30
Distance d (km)
13
Path Loss (Urban, Suburban and Open areas)
Urban area:
LPU (dB) 69.55 26.16 log10 f c (MHz) 13.82 log10 hb (m) hm (m)
44.9 6.55 log10 hb (m)log10 d (km)
where
1.1log10 f c ( MHz) 0.7hm (m) 1.56 log10 f c ( MHz) 0.8, for l arg e city
hm (m) 8.29log10 1.54hm (m)2 1.1, for f c 200MHz

, for small & medium city
3.2log10 11.75hm (m) 4.97, for f c 400MHz
Suburban area:
f ( MHz)
LPS (dB) LPU (dB) 2log10 c

5.4
28
Open area:
LPO (dB) LPU (dB) 4.78log10 fc (MHz) 18.33log10 fc (MHz) 40.94

2
14
Path Loss
Path loss in decreasing order:
Urban area (large city)

Urban area (medium and small city)
Suburban area
Open area
15
Example of Path Loss (Urban Area: Large City)

Path Loss in Urban Area in Large City
Path Loss Lpu (dB)
180
fc=200MHz
170
fc=400MHz
160
fc=800MHz
150
fc=1000MHz
140
fc=1500MHz
fc=150MHz
130
120
110
100
0
10
20
30
Distance d (km)
16
Example of Path Loss
(Urban Area: Medium and Small Cities)

Path Loss in Urban Area for Small & Medium Cities
Path Loss Lpu (dB)
180
170
fc=150MHz
160
fc=200MHz
150
fc=400MHz
140
fc=800MHz
130
fc=1000MHz
120
fc=1500MHz
110
100
0
10
20
30
Distance d (km)
17
Example of Path Loss (Suburban Area)

Path Loss in Suburban Area
Path Loss Lps (dB)
170
160
fc=150MHz
150
fc=200MHz
140
fc=400MHz
130
fc=800MHz
120
fc=1000MHz
110
fc=1500MHz
100
90
0
10
15
20
25
30
Distance d (km)
18
Example of Path Loss (Open Area)

Path Loss in Open Area
Path Loss Lpo (dB)
150
140
fc=150MHz
130
fc=200MHz
120
fc=400MHz
110
fc=800MHz
100
fc=1000MHz
fc=1500MHz
90
80
0
10
15
20
25
30
Distance d (km)
19
Fading
Fast Fading
(Short-term fading)
Slow Fading
(Long-term fading)
Signal
Strength
(dB)
Path Loss
Distance
20
Slow Fading
The long-term variation in the mean level is known as slow fading

(shadowing or log-normal fading). This fading caused by shadowing.
Log-normal distribution:
- The pdf of the received signal level is given in decibels by
pM
1
e
2
M M
2 2
where M is the true received signal level m in decibels, i.e., 10log10m,

M is the area average signal level, i.e., the mean of M,
is the standard deviation in decibels
21
Log-normal Distribution
2
p(M)
M
The pdf of the received signal level
22
Fast Fading
The signal from the transmitter may be reflected from

objects such as hills, buildings, or vehicles.
When MS far from BS, the envelope distribution of received signal is

Rayleigh distribution. The pdf is
pr
r2
2
2
, r 0
where is the standard deviation.
Middle value rm of envelope signal within sample range to be

satisfied by
P(r rm) 0.5.
We have rm = 1.777
23
Rayleigh Distribution
P(r)
1.0
0.8
=1
0.6
=2
0.4
=3
0.2
r
2
10
The pdf of the envelope variation

24
Fast Fading (Continued)
When MS far from BS, the envelope distribution of

received signal is Rician distribution. The pdf is
pr
r 2 2
2 2
r
I 0 , r 0

where
is the standard deviation,
I0(x) is the zero-order Bessel function of the first kind,
is the amplitude of the direct signal
25
Rician Distribution
= 0 (Rayleigh)
=1
=2
=3
0.6
Pdf p(r)
0.5
0.4
=1
0.3
0.2
0.1
00
4
r
The pdf of the envelope variation

26
Characteristics of Instantaneous Amplitude
Level Crossing Rate:
Fading Rate:
Number of times signal envelope crosses middle

value in positive going direction per unit time.
Depth of Fading:
Average number of times per second that the signal

envelope crosses the level in positive going direction.
Ratio of mean square value and minimum value of

fading signal.
Fading Duration:
Time for which signal is below given threshold.
27
Doppler Shift
Doppler Effect: When a wave source and a receiver are moving towards
each other, the frequency of the received signal will not be the same as the
source.
When they are moving toward each other, the frequency of the received signal
is higher than the source.
When they are opposing each other, the frequency decreases.
Thus, the frequency of the received signal is
f R fC f D
where fC is the frequency of source carrier,

fD is the Doppler frequency.
Doppler Shift in frequency:
fD
cos
where v is the moving speed,

is the wavelength of carrier.
Moving
speed v
MS
Signal
28
Delay Spread
When a signal propagates from a transmitter to a

receiver, signal suffers one or more reflections.
This forces signal to follow different paths.
Each path has different path length, so the time of
arrival for each path is different.
This effect which spreads out the signal is called
Delay Spread.
29
Moving Speed Effect

V2
V3
V4
Signal strength
V1
Time
30
Delay Spread
Signal Strength
The signals from

close by reflectors
The signals from

intermediate reflectors
The signals from
far away reflectors
Delay
31
Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
Caused by time delayed multipath signals

Has impact on burst error rate of channel
Second multipath is delayed and is received
during next symbol
For low bit-error-rate (BER)
1
R
2d
R (digital transmission rate) limited by delay
spread d.
32
Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

Transmission
signal
1
Time
0
Received signal
(short delay)
Time
Propagation time
Delayed signals
Received signal
(long delay)
Time
33
Coherence Bandwidth
Coherence bandwidth Bc:
Represents correlation between 2 fading signal

envelopes at frequencies f1 and f2.
Is a function of delay spread.
Two frequencies that are larger than coherence
bandwidth fade independently.
Concept useful in diversity reception
Multiple copies of same message are sent using

different frequencies.
34
Cochannel Interference
Cells having the same frequency interfere with each other.

rd is the desired signal
ru is the interfering undesired signal
is the protection ratio for which
rd ru (so that the signals interfere the least)
If P(rd ru ) is the probability that rd ru ,
Cochannel probability Pco = P(rd ru )
35

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Mobile Radio Propagation

Speed, Wavelength, Frequency

Speed, Wavelength, Frequency

Radio Frequency Bands

30 kHz - 300 kHz

300 kHz - 3 MHz

30 MHz - 300 MHz

300 MHz - 3 GHz

30 GHz - 300 GHz

Tremendously high THF

300 GHz - 3000 GHz

Propagation wave impinges on an object which is large as

Radio path between transmitter and receiver

Objects smaller than the wavelength of the

Radio Propagation Effects

The received signal power at distance d:

where Pt is transmitting power, Ae is effective area, and Gt is the

For a circular reflector antenna

Antenna with diameter = 2 m, frequency = 6 GHz, wavelength = 0.05 m

Frequency = 14 GHz, same diameter, wavelength = 0.021 m

The received signal power:

Path Loss (Free-space)

Definition of path loss LP :

LPF (dB) 32 .45 20 log10 f c ( MHz ) 20 log10 d (km),

Path Loss (Land Propagation)

Example of Path Loss (Free-space)

Path Loss Lf (dB)

Path Loss (Urban, Suburban and Open areas)

hm (m) 8.29log10 1.54hm (m)2 1.1, for f c 200MHz

3.2log10 11.75hm (m) 4.97, for f c 400MHz

LPS (dB) LPU (dB) 2log10 c

LPO (dB) LPU (dB) 4.78log10 fc (MHz) 18.33log10 fc (MHz) 40.94

Path loss in decreasing order:

Urban area (large city)

Example of Path Loss (Urban Area: Large City)

Path Loss Lpu (dB)

Example of Path Loss

(Urban Area: Medium and Small Cities)

Path Loss Lpu (dB)

Example of Path Loss (Suburban Area)

Path Loss Lps (dB)

Example of Path Loss (Open Area)

Path Loss Lpo (dB)

The long-term variation in the mean level is known as slow fading

where M is the true received signal level m in decibels, i.e., 10log10m,

The signal from the transmitter may be reflected from

When MS far from BS, the envelope distribution of received signal is

where is the standard deviation.

Middle value rm of envelope signal within sample range to be

P(r rm) 0.5.

The pdf of the envelope variation

Fast Fading (Continued)

When MS far from BS, the envelope distribution of

The pdf of the envelope variation

Characteristics of Instantaneous Amplitude

Level Crossing Rate:

Number of times signal envelope crosses middle

Average number of times per second that the signal

Ratio of mean square value and minimum value of

Time for which signal is below given threshold.

Thus, the frequency of the received signal is

where fC is the frequency of source carrier,

where v is the moving speed,

When a signal propagates from a transmitter to a