Hidrogeologi & Air Bawah

Tanah
(Hydrogeology and
Groundwater)

Star 5 Ogos 2003

Kita sudah bincang mengenai

1. Mineral
2. Batuan

3. Tanah
4. Now AIR pulak

Objectives
Memahami perbezaan bidang hidrogeologi
dgn hidrologi
Meninjau sumber air dan kitar air
Memahami konsep asas: keliangan
(porosity), ketelapan (permeability), akuifer,
akuitard, akuiklud.
Memahami konsep paras air dan faktor yg
mengawal kedudukannya

Describe the character and behaviour of

groundwater in various settings
Discuss environmental problems related to
groundwater.

Hydrogeology vs hydrology
Sama saja dalam segala segi
Kalau beza sikit sangat

Groundwater as an important
resource for
Drinking water (life)
Erosion (subterranean caverns)
(geological processes)
Equalizer of stream flow (geological
processes)

Agriculture

Water holding capabilities of

rock
Consider properties of rock for storage &
transport of water:
Porosity - percentage of rock's volume that is
openings

Permeability - ability of rock to transmit a fluid

Aquifer - Rock that is permeable, able to store
and transport water (examples)

Aquitard - Rock that is impermeable, acts to

hinder or prevent water movement (examples)

RESERVOIR
AIR
Infinite tapi pasti
Luas tetapi terhad

Hydrologic cycle

Hydrologic cycle
Powered by solar energy and gravity
Evaporation and precipitation
Continuous recycling of water
Where does water go that falls on the land?
Runoff (air larian)
Infiltration
Evaporation (penyejatan)
Temporary storage as snow and ice
Temp. storage in lakes
Temp storage in plants (evapotranspiration) and
animals
Chem reactions with rocks and minerals

 Source of additional water?

volcanism (steam)

Volcanism also causes melting of

snow caps and mudflows as
meltwater mixes with ash

Distribution of water on the

Earth
Total = 326 million cubic miles
Percentages
97.2% oceans
2.15% ice caps and glaciers
.65% lakes, streams, groundwater,
atmosphere

(bandingkan dgn slaid no 5)

Hydrologic Cycle (in greater

details)
A. Division of water on Earth

97.2% in oceans
2.15% in glaciers (largest source of fresh (nonsaline) water on Earth)
0.62% in groundwater (underground aquifers)
0.017% in lakes
0.005% in soil moisture

0.001% in atmosphere
0.0001% in stream channels

Water budget
Of all the water that comes out as rain on
land:
50% is evaporated and transpired by
plants
30% goes into runoff, eventually reaching
the ocean

20% goes into groundwater

Porosity and Permeability

Dua ciri yg penting yg ada pada
batuan dan tanah

Porosity (keliangan) is the amount of

pore space in a rock (the spaces
between the grains)
Porosity = volume of pores/total volume

Pores (liang)

Tazkirah/peringatan
Tahukah anda semua jenis batuan
mendak, igneus dan metamorfik?

Tahukah anda ciri2 asas pada ketiga-tiga

jenis batuan tersebut? (struktur kimia,
sifat fizik dan kimia, proses
kejadiannya/pembentukkannya)

 Porosity is independent of grain size.

Porosity depends on:

Sorting of the grains (or uniformity of grain
size)
Are the grains all the same size (well sorted),
or are a variety of grain sizes present, with
finer grains filling the spaces between the
larger grains (poorly sorted)?
Shape of the grains
Packing and arrangement of grains.
Cubic packing. Porosity = 47.64%
Rhombohedral packing. Porosity = 25.95%

sorting

High energy environment

Low energy environment

Packing?

 What are some examples of a rock with

high porosity?

What are some examples of a rock with

low porosity?
JAWAPAN ANDA?

Wentworth scale
Particle name

- grain size scale

Particle diameter

Boulders

> 256 m

Cobbles

64 - 256 mm

Pebbles

2 - 64 mm

Sand

1/16 2 mm

Silt

1/256 - 1/16 mm
(or 0.004 - 0.0625 mm)

Clay

< 1/256 mm
(or < 0.004 mm) <2 mikron

Pengelasan batuan mendak

1 Terrigenous (detrital or clastic) bumi/benua
Conglomerate or Breccia
Sandstone
Siltstone
POROSITY?
Shale
Ada/tak ada
claystone

2 Chemical/biochemical
Rendah/tinggi
Evaporites
Carbonate sedimentary rocks (limestones and dolostone)
Siliceous sedimentary rocks
3 Organic (coals)
Other ironstones

Permeability (ketelapan) is the

ease with which fluids flow
through a rock or sediment
A rock is permeable if fluids pass through
it, and impermeable if fluid flow through
the rock is negligible

Definition of permeability

Rujukan: Rock Slope Engineering

by Hoek and Bray (1979)

Permeability depends on:

Grain size
Coarser-grained sediments are more
permeable than fine-grained sediments
because the pores between the grains are
larger.
Sorting

Grain shape
Packing (controls pore size)

 What are some examples of a rock with

high permeability?
What are some examples of a rock with
low permeability?

JAWAPAN ANDA?

Classification of igneous rocks

REGIONAL

Mineral yg terdapat pada zon

metamorfik

Rumus
Changes that occur in the transformation to
become metamorphic rocks

FACIES GRADE

Hubungan antara porosity-permeability

 AQUIFER, AQUICLUDES, WATER

TABLE, UNCONFINED, CONFINED
AND PERCHED WATERS

Aquifers and aquicludes

An aquifer is a water-bearing rock.
Aquifers have high porosity and high
permeability.
Examples of rock types that could be aquifers?
Aquicludes are water-excluding rocks.
They have little or no porosity or permeability.
Examples of rock types that could be
aquicludes?

 Note that some impermeable

rock types may serve as
aquifers if they are highly
jointed. Water may be in the
joints or cracks in the rock

Water table/Paras air

Bergantung kpd topografi

Water table

The Water Table (Paras air)

When it rains, some of the water
percolates or soaks into the ground. We
call this infiltration. Some of the water is
held in the soil because it clings to the
soil particles because of molecular
attraction. It may evaporate from the
soil or be used by plants (zone of
aeration, also called the vadose
zone). Both air and water occupy the
pores spaces.

 Excess water penetrates

downward until it reaches the
water table. Below this point, all
of the pore spaces are filled with
water (zone of saturation (ZON
TEPU), also called the phreatic
zone).

 The water table is the top of

the zone of saturation.

The water table is not flat. It

mimics the topography, but
is more subdued. It stands
somewhat higher under hills,
and lower under valleys.

 Where the water table intersects

(or lies above) the ground surface,
springs, lakes, swamps, or rivers
are present. In humid areas,
groundwater movement supplies a
flow of water to a stream or river.
If a well is drilled, the waterlevel in
the well is at the water table.

 The position of the water table may

fluctuate with droughts.
If water is withdrawn from a well, the water
table is lowered in the immediate vicinity of
the well. The lowered surface of the water
table around a well forms a conical
depression in the water table. It is called
the cone of depression.
If significant quantities of water are
withdrawn from a well, the cone of
depression may be so large that it affects
the water level of other wells nearby.

Water table & groundwater flow

Processes
Recharge-precipitation and infiltration
Discharge-rivers, runoff, pumping
Relation to topography
Relation to seasonality

Water table & groundwater flow

groundwater

Artesian Wells

Perched water

Groundwater as resource
Seasonal changes
Effects of pumping

Pollution of groundwater
Ogallala aquifer

Problems associated with

groundwater withdrawal
Ground water depletion
Subsidence
Sinkhole formation
Groundwater pollution or contamination
Saltwater encroachment

Seawater before and after

pumping

groundwater

groundwater

Ogallala Aquifer

PUMPING TEST

DRAWDOWN

Sensor untuk mengesan

paras air (piezometer)