Respiration

Importance of Respiration and Energy

Respiration : a process of breaking down of food

molecules with the liberation of energy in the form of

ATP.
Energy required for various activities :
1) In anabolic reactions (building or synthesis of
substances)
2)Active transport
3) Contraction of muscles
4)Transmission of impulse
5)bioluminescence

Energy Carrier : ATP

Structure of ATP

Energy Carrier : ATP

ATP is a nucleotide consisting adenine, ribose and

three phosphate joined by covalent bonds.

ATP is hydrolysed into adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
and inorganic phosphate, energy is released. (30.6 kJ).
This reaction is a hydrolysis reaction and requires
water.
The enzyme ATPase catalyses this reaction.

Energy Carrier : ATP

Energy Carrier : ATP

The process of adding inorganic

phosphates to ADP is known as

phosphorylation.
ATP can be produced in three different
ways
a) Substrate-level phosphorylation.
b) Oxidative phosphorylation.
c) Photophosphorylation.

Substrate level phosphorylation

The formation of a bond between ADP and phosphate

by directly transfering a phosphate group from a highlevel molecule to ADP to form ATP.
eg.
a) PGAL + ADP PGA + ATP
b) GTP + ADP creatine + ATP
c) creatine phosphate + ADP creatine
+ ATP

Substrate level phosphorylation

Characteristics:

a) it is catalysed by a transferase
(phosphorylase)
b) it does not require oxygen
c) it can occur in cytoplasm, nucleus or
mitochondrion

Substrate-level phosphorylation:
Some ATP is made by direct enzymatic transfer of a phophate group from a
substrate to ADP. The phosphate donour in this case is PEP, which is
formed during glycolysis

Oxidative phosphorylation
Is the formation of ATP from ADP and phosphate

using the energy comes from the oxidation of organic

molecules during respiration.
Oxygen is required
Occurs inside the mitochondria (at the inner
membrane), which involves the electron transport
system

Photophosphorylation
ATP is made using energy from

light.

Energy Carrier : NADH

NADH is a reduced form of NAD+

NAD+ is a dinucleotide (made from 2 nucleotides).

It consist of adenine, 2 ribose, 2 phosphate,

nicotinamide and a H atom.

NAD+ is derived from the vitamin niacin or B3
Niacin can be obtained from meat, wholemeal bread,
yeast extract and liver.
3 ATP molecules are formed for every NADH that
enters the ETC

Energy Carrier : NADH

Energy Carrier : FADH2

FADH2 is a reduced form of FAD.
It consist of riboflavin (vitamin B2), adenine, 2

phosphate and 2 hydrogen atoms.

2 ATP molecules are formed for every FADH2 that
enters the ETC.

Energy Carrier : FADH2

Types of respiration
Aerobic respiration (aerobiosis) and

anaerobic respiration ( anaerobiosis)

Aerobic respiration occurs in living
cells in the presence of oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration occurs in living
cells in the absence of oxygen.

Aerobic respiration
Four stages:

1) Glycolysis
2) The link reaction (linking
glycolysis to the Krebs cycle)
3) Krebs cycle
4) Electron transport system

The link - the formation of acetyl CoA

When oxygen is available, pyruvate is transported into

the matrix of mitochondrion from the cytoplasm

Pyruvate (3C) is decarboxylated (removal of carbon
dioxide) and oxidised (removal of hydrogen atoms) to
form a two-carbon acetate (2C)

The link

The formation of acetyl Co-A

The acetate combines with coenzyme A to form a two-

carbon acetylcoenzyme A which then enters into the

Krebs cycle
Two acetyl CoA molecules are formed from one
glucose molecule

Krebs cycle/ Tricarboxylic cycle/ Citric acid

cycle
Acetyl CoA (2C) combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to

form citrate (6C)

Citrate rearranges to form isocitrate (6C)
Isocitrate is oxidised to form oxalosuccinate (6C).
NAD+ is reduced to become NADH
Oxalosuccinate (6C) is decarboxylated (loses a CO2)
and is converted to
-ketoglutarate

 Second oxidative-decarboxylation of -ketoglutarate

takes place and produces succinyl coenzyme A (4C),

CO2 and NADH
Substrate level phosphorylation takes place. Succinyl
Co-A is converted succinate (4C). The energy released
is used for phosphorylation of GDP to form GTP.
GTP transfers its phosphate group to ADP forming
ATP

 Succinate is oxidised to fumarate (4C), two hydrogen

atoms are transferred to FAD (flavin adenine

nucleotide) to form FADH2
Fumarate becomes hydrated by addition of water is
converted to malate (4C)
Malate is oxidised regenerating oxaloacetate (4C), and
NAD+ is reduced to NADH.

Formation of NADH, FADH2, GTP and ATP During

the Kreb Cycle.
NADH is produced in 3 reactions when hydrogen atom

is removed from the intermediate during

dehydrogenation catalysed by dehydrogenase.
NAD+ acts as coenzyme to accept the hydrogen atom.
FADH2 is produced when succinate is dehydrogenated
to fumarate catalysed by succinate dehydrogenase.

Formation of NADH, FADH2, GTP and ATP

During the Kreb Cycle.
FAD is the prosthetic group of succinate

dehydrogenase and acts as a cofactor to accept 2

hydrogen atoms.
GTP is formed at substrate-level phosphorylation from
GDP and inorganic phosphate when an intermediate
releases energy catalysed by an enzyme.
ATP can be formed from GTP with the help of
transferase.
The phosphate group is transferred on ADP to form
ATP. (substrate-level phosphorylation)

Electron transport system

It is a functional unit consisting of coenzymes in which

H+ and electrons are transferred from one coenzyme to

another and finally accepted by oxygen to form water
At certain stage when the electron is transferred from
one coenzyme to another, enough energy is given out
to form ATP
One NADH + H+ can form 3 ATP whereas one FADH2
can form 2 ATP

Electron transport system/ chain

Chemiosmosis
Electrons released by the oxidation of substrate in the

matrix flows down the electron transport chain

The energy released is used to pump H+ from the
matrix into the intermembrane space. This builds up a
transmembrane electro-chemical protons (H+)
gradient

 The inner membrane of the mitochondrion is

impermeable to hydrogen ions. The gradient forces

hydrogen ions to diffuse through the ATP synthase.
The potential energy is used to synthesise ATP from
ADP and Pi

Role of NADH, FADH2, and ATP Synthase

in ETC
The role of NADH is to pass the

hydrogen atom to the first electron

carrier (NADH reductase) of ETC and 3
ATP can be produced.
NAD+ is formed and can be used to
accept hydrogen atom for
dehydrogenase enzymes.

Role of NADH, FADH2, and ATP Synthase

in ETC
The role of FADH2 is to pass the

hydrogen atom to the Second electron

carrier (cytochrome reductase) of ETC
and 2 ATP can be produced.
FAD is formed and can be used to
accept hydrogen atom for succinate
dehydrogenase.

Role of NADH, FADH2, and ATP Synthase

in ETC
The role of ATP synthase is acting as

enzyme to catalyse the formation of

ATP from ADP and inorganic
phosphate when hydrogen ion diffuse
across it in the cristae.

The electron transport system uses high-energy electrons

from the Krebs cycle to convert ADP into ATP

ATP synthesis by chemiosmosis using the energy released in the

Electron transport system

The maximum ATP yield for cellular respiration in a eukaryotic cell

Respiratory inhibitors

Cyanide
is a competitive inhibitor
Binds strongly to the ferric Fe3+ component of
cytochrome a3 present in the cytochrome oxidase.
Inhibits the terminal transfer of electron to oxygen.
The whole process of oxidative phosphorylation
cannot take place, so it prevents the formation of ATP

Carbon monoxide
Is a toxin gas.
combines tightly with haemoglobin. Once attached,
the haemoglobin cannot carry oxygen, this leads to
hypoxia ( a fall in partial pressure of oxygen in arterial
blood)
When no oxygen is carried to the cells, no oxidative
phosphorylation can take place.
Haemoglobin has a higher affinity for carbon
monoxide compared to oxygen.

Anaerobiosis
Breakdown of glucose with the production of energy in

the absence of oxygen

Two types: in plants and in animals

Anaerobiosis in plants

Fermentation
Glycolysis takes place, pyruvate is produced
Krebs cycle cannot occur
Pyruvate is decarboxylated to become an ethanal (2C).
NADH is used to reduce the ethanal to ethanol
Ethanol is produced (poison)
2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule

Anaerobiosis in plants and yeast

Anaerobiosis in animals
Occurs in muscles that are active contracting and the

supply of oxygen is not enough

Glycolysis occurs, Krebs cycle cannot take place, only
2 ATP per glucose molecule
Pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid by NADH
Lactic acid accumulation causes fatigue, cramping and
lower blood pH

Anaerobiosis in muscle

 After anaerobic respiration, the lactic acid is converted

in the liver to form glucose or glycogen through the

Cori cycle
The oxygen needed to break down the lactic acid is
known as the oxygen debt

Use of fermentation in industry

For production of alcoholic beverages
For production of vinegar (ethanoic acid)
Used in making bread and spongy cookies
For production of cheese and yoghurt
For production of monosodium glutamate (MSG)