Tissue level of organisation

Dr. S. Francis

Outline
Histology is the study of tissue.
4 major tissue types

Epithelial
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Neural tissue

Examining their function, main

characteristics, the various types, and places
where they are commonly found.

 Tissues
Collection of spec. Cells and extracellular
matrix, that forms a spc. but ltd. range of
functions.

Epithelial tissue

Connective tissue

Covers exposed areas of the body.

Fills internal spaces.

Covers outer edges of organs or inner

lining of blood vessels or ducts
Lines passageways and chambers.

Provides structure and support for

other tissues.
Transport materials within the body.

Forms glands.
Stores NRG.
They are avascular.

Muscle tissue

Neural tissue

Contracts to perform specific

movements.

Carries info. from one region of the

body to another via electrical
impulses.

In the process of contraction and

movement, they are able to generate
heat.
Most are amitotic

They are amitotic

 The need for different tissue types, along with

cell differentiation, is the main reason why higher
organisms are unable to regenerate themselves.
Muscle and neural cells are amitotic, and hence
these tissues seldom develop cancer.

 Epitheal
Protective tissues
Lining of the epidermis in the skin
Lining of the mouth
Fluid filled cavity
Of the brain, eye or Blood vessels (prevents friction)

Regulate movement of substances

Lining of the intestine
Movement of nutrients across its membrane

Lining of the alveoli within the lungs

Diffusion of gases

Capillaries
Allows the filtration of blood and nutrients to the tissues/cells.

Glandular cells
Mammary, sweat, salivary glands
Secrete substances (liquids, mucus, hormones or enzymes).

 Provides sensation
Highly innervated though avascular
Touch receptors in the skin, responds to stimulus by
stimulating adjacent sensory nerve cells.
Neuroepithelium (epithelium containing sensory nerves),
responds to smell, taste, sight, equilibrium and hearing.

 Cells are tightly bounded

By one or more tight junctions or desmosomes, and
in addition they are bounded to a basal membrane by
Cell Adhesive Molecules (CAMs)

(CAMs can be visualised as cement holding ceramic tiles to the grounding, while
specialised cell junctions,can be visualised as the grouting holding the tiles together

Polarity
Always have an exposed surface where the plasma
membrane may be specialised
Microvilli (intestine) or ciliated (trachea), keratinised (skin)

Regeneration
Continuously damaged, therefore constantly
regenerated from stem cells within the epithelium.

Simple
1 layer of cells covering the basal
membrane

Squamous
(plate or scales)
thin and flat

Only in protected areas (i.e.

passage ways, vessels, chambers,
body cavity.

nuclei occupies thickest portion of cell.

Allows secretion & absorption

(i.e. it reduces diffusion time, e.g.
reabsorbs H2O in kidney tubules)

Cuboidal

Stratified

Appears square or hexagon

Many layers of cells covering

the basal membrane.

Nuclei lies near centre of cells.

Named by the shape of the cells

in the superficial layer.

Columnar

Provides protection (found over

areas that endure chem. or
mech. stress, e.g. skin, lining of
the mouth and anus.

Boxlike, taller and more slender

Nuclei near base.

 Simple Squamous epithelium

In protective regions, allowing absorption
Alveoli of the lung, kidney tubules

Slick surface - reduce friction.

lining of ventral cavities, blood vessels.

Those not linked with the envn. have spec. names

"Meso"thelium (simple squamous epithelial cells in the serous
membrane, lining the ventral body cavities and covering the
organs "middle").
Pleura, peritoneum, pericardium.

"Endo"thelium (simple squamous epithelial cells lining vessels

and hollow organs "inside covering").

lining the heart and the lymph and blood vessels.

 Stratified Squamous epithelium

Most wide spread of stratified epithelium.
Located where chem. or mech. stress and dehydration
is severe.
Superficial cells are normally atrophied (without
nutrients)
Superficial layer of stressed areas are normally
packed with the protein filament keratin (tough and
water resistant).
Nonkeratinised layers provides resistance to abrasion,
but they have to be kept moist.
Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, anus, vagina.

 Simple cuboidal epithelial cells

Nucleus are perfectly aligned within the tissue, causing
it to look like a string of beads.

Ltd. protection
Main function is secretion and absorption
Forms ducts of glands in kidney tubules, pancreas, salivary,
and thyroid glands.

Stratified Cuboidal epithelial cells

Rare, located along the ducts of large glands
sweat and mammary glands.

 Simple columnar epithelium

Assc. with absorption and secretion
E.g. stomach, small intestine, large intestine.

Digestive sys. Has two modifications of these cells

Dense microvilli & goblet cells (secrete mucus - Its
secretion provide protection from chemical stresses).

Stratified columnar epithelium

Relatively rare, provides protection
Occurs at transition areas / junctions b/w 2 other types
of epithelial cells.
Small portion of pharynx, urethra, anus as well as a few
large excretory ducts.

 Transitional epithelium
Appearance changes when stretched
In the urinary sys., when bladder empty cells resemble stratified
cuboidal or columnar depending on the degree of stretch.

Pseudostratified Columar epithelium

All cells rest on the basal membrane, however cells are of
different height and they appear stratified, as their nuclei lies
at diffn. levels.
They secrete and absorb substances.
A ciliated version containing goblet cells occur in the respiratory tract,
lining the nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi, and a portion of the male
reproductive tract.

 Glandular epithelia
Secreting epithelial cell
Make and secrete H2O base fluid, either protein or steroid rich.

Unicellular (scattered w/in the epithelial)

Multicellular (formed from in or evagination of the
epithelial sheet
Most have ducts

Internally or externally secreting cells.

"Endo" crine - "w/in"

Secrete within the interstitial fluid
Via exocytosis

Secrete hormones
Regulatory substances

Ductless secretions
Most are multicellular
Not all are epithelial derived.
Part of the epithelial surface
Lining of digestive tract (amine and peptide hormones that regulate
digestion), kidney (erythropoietin) etc.

Separated from the surface

Pancreas (insulin, Glucogan), pituitary (oxytocin), adrenal
(corticosteriods), testes/ ovaries (sex hormones), etc.

"Exo"crine - "outside"
Secretions are onto epithelial surface
On body surface or within body cavity
Secretions usually protective
Sweat, saliva, digestive enzymes)

Unicellular glands
Goblet cells via exocytosis
Mucin w/in columnar epithelial cells of trachea, digestive tract.

Multicellular glands (secreting sheets)

Secrete via ducts
2 main parts
Ducts, derived from epithelium
Secretory units consisting of secretory cells
Surrounded by supportive connective tissues; supplies blood
vessels and nerve fibres.

Multicellular secreting glands

Describes according to structure

Simple duct structure

Unbranched from the main duct (1 duct)

Cmpd. duct structure

Branched (many ducts, linked to a main duct)

Tubular (Secretory cells forms tubes)

Alveolar(small hollow cavity)/ Acinar(berrylike)
(Secretory cells form small flask like sacs).
Tubuloalveolar (Mixed)

Mode of secretion

"Mero"crine - "part"
- Very common
- via exocytosis (cells r not altered, prds. r secreted as they r
manufactured)

- Salivary, most sweat glands, pancreatic glands, mammary glands

"Apo"crine - "off"
- Loss of the apex portion of the cytoplasm and secretion
(cells accum. secretion until they break off, then they repair themselves)
Lipid droplets in the mammary glands

"

Halo"crine - "entire"

- Cell burst and die (cells accum. secretion until rupture and die)
- highly mitotic cells
- sebaceous glands of skin.

 Secretions may be
Serous
Watery based, with enzymes (parotid salivary gland)

Mucous
Protein mucin which gives mucous when dissolved
in H2O

Mixed
Contains one or more glands and prd. different
secretions
Submandibular salivary gland

 Connective Tissue
Found w/in the body, most abundant and widely
distributed.
Bone, blood, adipose tissue

Support the body

protect and interconnect other tissues.
Transport materials
Fluid connective tissues provides means of transport for
dissolved and essential materials

Storage of energy reserves

Fats in the adipose tissues store energy

Defense
Responds to microorganisms and prd. antibodies.

 Many are highly vascularised

Contains many receptors
Pain, pressure, temp.

Derived from mesoderm (embryonic) tissue

Share basic characteristics

3 basic components
Protein fibres
Grd. subst.
Specialised cells

 Protein fibres
Collagen, reticular, elastic

Collagen
Long and straight, adds structure (flexible and strong)
Most common
E.g. tendons have a high constituent of collagen fibres

Reticular (network)
Thin, branched fibres (tough but flexible)
Stabilises position of cells, organs blood vessels, nerves etc.

Elastic fibres
Contain the protein elastin
Branched, wavy, stretchable and recoils

 Ground substance
Fill the spaces b/w the cells
A/c for cell volume
Water based
Blood plasma and interstitial fluid in the lymph

Viscous
Collagen proper (adipose tissue, tendons, ligaments)
Its density slows bacterial pathogens

Firm rubbery gel

Cartilage

Calcified
Bone

Specialised
cells vary between the types of tissues.

Connective tissue proper

Many types of cells and fibres in an syrupy grd. fluid.
The tissue types differ in their proportion of fibres and cells
Loose or Areolar (little space)
(fibres create a loose open framework)
(e.g. Adipose tissue, brown fat; highly vascularised, in infants)
Dense (fibres are densely packed)
(Tendons; connect muscles to bones. Ligaments; connects bones to each other)

Fluid connective tissue

Many of the cells and fibres are in a fluid matrix

Blood and lymph

Supporting connective tissue
Cells and fibres in a rubbery
(Cartilage)

or Calcium grd. Fluid

(Bone)

 Connective tissue proper

Cells are involved in
Local maintenance, repair, energy storage

Cell popn
Fibroblast
Prd. Hyaluronan (polysacc) and proteins (fibres)
both forms proteoglycan

Macrophages
Microphages (neutrophils and eosinophils)
Adipocytes
Meschymal cells (stem cells for regeneration)
Melanocytes
Mast cells
Filled with granules of histamine and heparin

Lymphocytes

 Loose / Areolar connective proper tissues

Packaging materials of the body
Fills spaces b/w organs
Sep. skin from muscles

Provides cushioning
Supports epithelial, blood vessels, nerves
Stores lipids
Adipose tissue have a higher concn of fat cells

Allows a route for diffusion of materials

Provides nutrients for epithelial cells

Extensive blood supply

(e.g. buttocks, belly, surrounds kidney and bony
sockets of the eye)

 Dense connective tissue

Regular and Irrregular

Dense regular
Contain high % of collagen and elastin arranged
parallel to each other.
E.g. tendons and ligaments

Dense irregular
Collagen and elastin fibres are interwoven
Provide strength, support (e.g. skin)
Attachment to other body parts
sheath around cartilages (the perichondrium), sheath around
bones (periosteum), capsule surrounding kindneys, spleen,
encloses cavities of joints.

Fluid connective tissue

Blood
Cell popn
Erythrocytes (RBC)
Leukocytes (WBC)
Platelets

Lymph
(returns interstitial fluid to the circulatory sys.;
removes dead cells and pathogens)
Cell popn
Leukocytes
Lymphocytes

Supportive connective tissue

Cartilage
Avascular (nutrients & waste diffuses across matrix
Gel matrix from chondroitin sulphate (polysacc) +
fibreous protein
Cell popn
Chondrocytes
Found in small pockets called Lacunae
Prd. a chem. (antiangiogenesis factor) that inhibits vascular growth

 3 types of cartilages
Hyaline (hylos - glass) most common
Numerous loosely packed collagen fibres
Nasal, b/w rib & sternum, b/w trachea walls, covers bones.

Elastic cartilage
Numerous elastin fibres
Flaps of the ear and epiglottis, middle ear

Fibrocartilage
Little grd. subst, many interwoven collagen fibres
Lies b/w the spinal vertebrates, b/w pubic bone of pelvis,
around or within some joints and tendons.
Resist compression
Prevent bone to bone contact.

 Bone
Matrix .Collagen fibres + CaPO4 / CaCO3
Cell popn
Osteocytes in lacunae

Cells communicate w/ central blood vessels via

canaliculi (little canals)
Unlike cartilage bone r reparable

 Membranes
Formed b/w epithelial and connective tissues
Protect and cover other structures

4 types
Mucus, serous, cutaneous, synovial

Mucus membrane
Loose connective tissue (Lamina propria ) + simple
epithelium
Lines cavities that commun. w/ exterior
Digestive, respiratory, urinary

Epithelial r kept moist

by mucus prding goblet cells, multicellular glands, urine,
semen.

 Serous membrane
Lines the sealed internal divisions of the ventral
cavity
Pleura, pericardium, peritoneum.

Has a parietal & visceral portion

Mesothelium (cavity epithelium) + loose connective
tissue

Cutaneous membrane (skin)

Covers body surface
Water proof and Dry
Stratified squamous epithelial + loose (lamina
propria)& dense (reticular lamina) connective tissue

 Synovial membrane
b/w joints which permits significant movements
Spec. loose connective tissue (interwoven
collagen, proteoglycans, glycoproteins) +
incomplete simple squamous epithelium.

Muscle tissue
Spec. for contractions
Derived from the mesoderm
Cytoplasm differs from reg. cells called
sarcoplasma (made up of actin & myosin proteins)
Plasma mem. called sacrolemma
3 types
Skeletal, cardiac, smooth

 Skeletal Muscle
Cells long and slender.called muscle fibres
Fibres are tied together by looses connective tissue
Grp of cells attach to muscle via tendons)

Actin and Myosin arranged in bands.striated

Multinucleated
Amitotic
Depend on myoblast/ myosatellite cells

Voluntary muscles

 Cardiac muscle
Situated only in the heart
Cells appear like skeletal muscles but fibres are
smaller.
Usually uni-nucleated
Cells form extensive connections w/ one
another..called Intercalated disc
Attached by desmosomes, intercement, gap
junctions (allows ionic movement to twitch)
Amitotic, have no satellite cells
Irreparable

 Smooth muscle
Located in walls of blood vessels, around
hollow organs (urinary bladder, esophagus,
reproductive tract)
Spindle shaped
Uni-nucleated
Mitotic
Actin and myosin fibres lye one on top the
other, therefore no striations
Involuntary contractions

Neural tissue
Derived from the ectodermal layer
Conduct electrical impulses from one part
of the body to the next
amitotic

 2 basic types
Neurons (nerve cells)

Communicate via trans membrane potential

Head region with the nucleus, which sends out dentrites,
dendrites (tree) are contacted by other neurons.
Tail/ axon (nerve fibre), which ends in synaptic terminals,
these attach directly to cells and dendrites, carry info.

Neuroglia (nerve glue - supporting cells)

Provide a supportive framework for neural tissue

Supply nutrients & performs phagocytosis
Maintains physical structure of the tissue
6 cell types (4 CNS & 2 PNS)