The Digestive System

The Gastrointestinal System consists of the:

Digestive Tract

Accessory Organs

Oral Cavity

Teeth

Pharynx

Tongue

Esophagus

Salivary Glands

Stomach

Liver

Small Intestines

Pancreas

Large Intestines

GENERAL FUNCTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Ingestion
Mechanical Processing
Digestion
Secretion
Absorption
Excretion

The Digestive Organs and the

Peritoneum

Peritoneal cavity found within the

abdominopelvic cavity, lined by a serous
membrane (mesothelium and areolar tissue)
Serous membrane Serosa (visceral
peritoneum) & Parietal Peritoneum
Peritoneal fluid separates the two layers

The Digestive Organs and the

Peritoneum

MESENTERIES

Sheets of serous membrane that suspend

portions of the digestive tract within the peritoneal
cavity
Double sheets of peritoneal membrane
Provides access routes for blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels and nerves
Stabilizes position of attached organs

Peritoneum and Mesenteries

Mesenteries

Mesenteries

Digestive tract &

Accessory Organs
suspended by dorsal
and ventral
mesenteries in
embryonic life

Mesenteries

Ventral Mesentery > Lesser Omentum &

Falciform Ligament

Dorsal Mesentery > Greater Omentum

Lesser and Greater Omentum

LAYERS OF THE WALL OF

THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
Mucosa
2. Submucosa
Muscularis Externa
4. Serosa
1.

3.

Mucosa
Epithelial Layer & Lamina Propria

Epithelial Layer
The layer is folded to facilitate a large surface
area for digestion.
The epithelium may be simple or stratified.

Stratified Squamous- Oral Cavity, Pharynx and

Esophagus
Simple Columnar- Stomach, Small Intestine and
almost all the length of the large intestine.

Lamina Propria

Loose connective tissue

Blood vessels
Sensory nerve endings
Lymphatic vessels
Smooth muscle cells
Scattered lymphoid tissues
Secretory cells of mucus glands
Muscularis Mucosae (circular and longitudinal)

Submucosa

A layer of dense connective tissues that lies

below the mucosa consisting of:

Blood vessels
Lymphatic Vessels
Exocrine glands - buffers and enzymes
Sub mucosal plexus/Plexus of Meissner

Sensory neurons, parasympathetic ganglionic neurons and

sympathetic postganglionic fibers innervating mucosa and
submucosa

Muscularis Externa

Dominated by
smooth muscle cells
Forms an inner
circular and outer
longitudinal layer
Contraction facilitates
peristalsis and
segmentation

Muscularis Externa

Enteric Nervous System (ENS) coordinate

movements innervated by the ANS
Sympathetic fibers also innervate mucosa and
Myenteric Plexus
Myenteric Plexus lies between circular and
longitudinal muscle
Parasympathetic stimulation increases muscle
tone and activity

Serosa/Adventitia

Found along most portions of tract except in the

oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus and rectum.
The areas consist of a dense network of
collagen fibers which attaches the digestive tract
to the adjacent structures.

Control of Digestive Functions

Neural Mechanisms

Hormonal Mechanisms

CNS and Enteric Nervous System

Enteroendocrine cells

Local Mechanisms

Release of chemicals in interstitial fluid

Digestive Systems and Their Functions

Oral Cavity
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine

ORAL CAVITY
Functions:
Analysis of material before swallowing
Mechanical processing by teeth, tongue
and palate surfaces
Lubrication with mucus and salivary
secretions
Limited digestion of carbohydrates and
lipids.

Salivary Glands

Salivary Gland

Submandibular Glands
-buffers, mucins & salivary amylase
Sublinguals
-contains mucus cells
Parotid Glands
-contains only serous cells salivary amylase

Saliva
Functions
Helps keep oral surfaces clean
Moistening and lubricating of mouth and food.
Aids in tasting.
Aids in Swallowing.
Helps in the metabolism of carbohydrate.
Helps to maintain the calcium phosphate matrix
of the teeth.

Four Major Components of Saliva:

1.

2.
3.
4.

Mucus
Amylase
Lingual Lipase
Alkaline Electrolyte Solution

Note:

Saliva contains thiocyanates and lysozymes that can attack and destroy the mouth bacteria.
It also contains antibodies that destroy oral bacteria in certain people.

Control of Salivary Secretions

ANS control

PANS increases secretion

SNS produces small amounts of thick saliva

Other brain stem nuclei & higher centers

Chewing gum
Smelling or thinking about food
Irritating stimuli in esophagus, stomach &
intestines

Pharynx

Review Respiratory system

Esophagus

Definition
A hollow muscular tube that transfers solid food
and liquids to the stomach.
Extends from cricoid cartilage, along posterior
surface of trachea, through diaphragm to
stomach
Upper and Lower (Cardiac Sphincter)
Esophageal Sphincter Muscles

Histology of Esophagus

Mucosa nonkeratinized stratified squamous

epithelium
Mucosa and submucosa thrown into folds
Submucosa contains mucus secreting glands

Esophagus

The Mechanism of Swallowing

Consists of three phases:

Oral Phase
Pharyngeal Phase
Esophageal Phase

The Mechanism of Swallowing

Oral Phase

Voluntary Phase
Hard palate compresses bolus
Tongue forces bolus into oropharynx
Soft palate elevated

The Mechanism of Swallowing

Pharyngeal Phase

Bolus enters pharynx

Tactile receptors on palatal arches and uvula
stimulated by bolus
Swallowing center of medulla oblongata receives
information
Pharyngeal muscles stimulated to contract
Larynx elevates
Respiratory centers inhibited

The Mechanism of Swallowing

Esophageal Phase

Bolus enters esophagus

Bolus pushed to stomach by peristalsis
Cardiac sphincter muscles open
Bolus enters stomach

The Stomach
Functions:
Bulk storage of ingested food.
Mechanical breakdown of ingested food.
Disruption of chemical bonds in food.
Production of intrinsic factor (for vitamin B12
absorption).

The Stomach

The Stomach
Histology

Epithelium simple columnar with goblet cells

Gastric pits open onto gastric surface
Gastric glands below gastric pits in fundus and
body

Gastric Glands
Consist of:
Parietal Cells
Intrinsic factor & HCl
Chief Cells Pepsinogen

Vit B12

Parietal Secretion Of HCl

Hydrochloric Acid

Functions:
Kills microbes.
Denatures proteins and inactivates most
enzymes in food.
Breaks down plant cell walls and connective
tissues in meat.
Provides an acidic environment for activation
and function of pepsin.

Chief Cells

Secrete pepsinogen
Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin in the
gastric lumen by HCl (pH 1.5 2.0)
Rennin and Gastric Lipase produced in infants

Pyloric glands

Produce:

Mucus
Hormones by Enteroendocrine cells

Gastrin by G cells stimulates parietal and chief cells

and promotes gastric mixing
Somatostatin by D cells inhibits gastrin release;
overridden by neural & hormonal stimuli

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Controlled by CNS
Regulated by short reflexes of the ENS in wall
of stomach
Regulated by hormones in the digestive tract

Regulation of Gastric Activity

There are three phases of Gastric Control:

1.
2.

3.

1.

2.

3.

Cephalic Phase
Gastric Phase
Intestinal Phase

Cephalic Phase
-Begins before food enters the stomach, that is when we see, smell, think or
taste food.
Gastric Phase
-The presence of food in the stomach stimulates gastric secretions.
Intestinal Phase
-Distension and presence of protein fragments in the duodenum trigger the
release of gastrin.

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Cephalic Phase

Directed by CNS (Medulla)

Lasts one minute

Neural output via PANS and vagus nerves innervate
submucosal plexus
Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers innervate
mucous cells, chief cells, parietal cells and G cells
Gastric juice production accelerates (500ml/hr)
(Phase affected by emotional states)

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Gastric Phase

Initiated by stomach distension, increased

pH in stomach and undigested proteins in
stomach
3 4 hours

Mechanisms of Gastric Phase

Neural Response

Stretch receptors and chemoreceptors stimulated

Short reflexes triggered in submucosal and
myenteric plexuses
Postganglionic fibers leaving submucosal plexus
stimulate the release of Ach which stimulates
chief and parietal cells
Myenteric plexus stimulation produce mixing
waves

Mechanisms of Gastric Phase

Hormonal Response

Neural stimulation and the presence of peptides

and amino acids stimulate Gastrin secretion
Gastrin accelerates parietal and chief cell
secretion rates
Gastrin stimulates gastric motility

Mechanisms of Gastric Phase

Local Response

Distention of gastric wall stimulates the release of

histamine in the lamina propria
Histamine binds to receptors on parietal cells

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Intestinal phase
Neural Responses

Chyme leaves the stomach relieving stomach

distension
Stretch and chemo- receptors in duodenum stimulated
by the presence of chyme
Enterogastric reflex inhibits central and local
stimulation of gastrin production & gastric
contractions; also stimulating contraction of the pyloric
sphincter
Local reflexes stimulate mucus production at the
duodenum

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Intestinal phase

Hormonal Responses

Cholecystokinin (CCK) and Gastric Inhibitory

Peptide (GIP) secreted when lipids and
carbohydrates enter the duodenum

CCK inhibits acid and pepsin secretion

GIP targets the pancreas and inhibits gastric
secretion and reduces rate and force of gastric
contractions

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Intestinal phase

Hormonal Responses

Secretin secreted when pH drops below 4.5

Secretin inhibits parietal and chief cell activity

Stimulates production of bicarbonate ions by the

pancreas and bile by the liver

Regulation of Gastric Activity

Intestinal phase

Hormonal Responses

Gastrin is produced by G cells in duodenum when

partially digested proteins enter the duodenum

Accelerates acid and enzyme secretion in stomach

High fat, high protein meals slow gastric

emptying
Large, low fat, low protein, wine and caffeine
increases gastric emptying
Wine and caffeine increases gastric secretion
and motility

DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION IN

THE STOMACH
Proteins break down in the presence of pepsin to form
polypeptides.

Carbohydrate and lipid digestion continue until pH

throughout the material in the stomach falls below 4.5.

The only substances absorbed by the stomach are fatsoluble (incl. alcohol and aspirin) in small amounts.

NB: The stomach lacks the absorptive surfaces contained in

the small intestine.

Small Intestines and Accessory Organs

Extends from the pyloric

sphincter to the cecum.
(Approx. 2.5 cm in diameter &
7m long)

Enzymes are secreted in the

small intestines by the
pancreas.

These are:
Pancreatic Amylase
Pancreatic Lipase
Nucleases
Proteolytic Enzymes
The liver and gall bladder
secretes bile into the small
intestine.

Consists of three parts:

DUODENUM
JEJUNUM
ILEUM

NB
-9O% of absorption occurs in
the small intestine.

Histology

Structural features of the Small intestines:

Plicae circulares
Villi
Microvilli

Components

of the villi:

Lamina propria has capillaries that transports gases and

absorbed nutrients to the hepatic portal vein.
Lacteals transport substances too large to diffuse into the
bloodstream eg.Chylomicrons (protein-lipid packages).
Muscularis mucosae and smooth muscle of intestinal villi move
villi for maximum absorption of nutrients and squeeze lacteals
therefore moving lymph out of villi

Histology

Structure of Duodenum, Jejunum and

ileum.
Duodenum- has few plicae, numerous villi and
mucous glands
Jejunum- has plicae and villi (prominent in its
proximal portion).
Ileum- has scattered villi but lacks plicae
altogether; lymphoid tissue (Peyers Patches) at
terminal portion

Intestinal Secretion

Intestinal secretions contain

Mucus
Brush border enzymes (enterokinase,maltase,
sucrase, lactase, dipeptidases, peptidases)

Intestinal secretion is controlled by

Local reflexes
Enterocrinin secretion
Parasympathetic stimulation

Intestinal Movements

Myenteric reflexes stimulate weak peristaltic

contractions
PANS stimulation accelerates peristalsis and
segmentation
Affects short segments of small intestine

Intestinal Movements

Two reflexes coordinate activities along the

entire length of the small intestine:

Triggered by stretch receptors in stomach

Gastroenteric reflex stimulates motility and secretion

along entire small intestine
Gastroileal reflex stimulates relaxation of ileocecal
valve; enhanced by gastrin secretion

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Pancreas

When acidic chyme enters the duodenum,

pancreatic juice via the pancreatic duct enters
as well.

Functions of the pancreas

Endocrine

cells of the pancreatic islets

produce insulin and glucagon
Exocrine cells including acinar and
epithelial duct cells produce pancreatic
juice

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Pancreas

Pancreatic juice consists of:

Sodium bicarbonate (pH 7.5 -8.8)

Buffer solution secreted when chyme enters duodenum

and secretin produced

PANCREATIC ENZYMES:

CHOLECYSTOKININ stimulates their production

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Pancreas

PANCREATIC ENZYMES
Pancreatic amylase carbohydrates to tri- and disaccharides
Pancreatic lipase lipids to fatty acids and
monoglycerides
Nucleases nucleic acids to simple sugars and
nitrogen bases

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Pancreas

PANCREATIC ENZYMES (Proteolytic enzymes)

Trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen,
procarboxypeptidase and proelastase
In the duodenum enterokinase converts
trypsinogen to trypsin
Trypsin activates the other enzymes to
chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase and elastase
These enzymes produce dipeptides, tripeptides
and amino acids from proteins

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Liver

The liver has numerous functions which may

be categorised as:

Metabolic regulation

Carbohydrate, lipid and amino acid metabolism, waste

product removal, vitamin & mineral storage, drug
inactivation

Hematological regulation
Bile production

The Liver

Metabolic Regulation

The liver regulates:

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Composition of circulating blood

Nutrient metabolism
Waste product removal
Nutrient storage
Drug inactivation

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The Liver

Composition of Circulating Blood

All blood leaving absorptive surfaces of digestive tract

Enters hepatic portal system

Flows into the liver

Liver cells extract nutrients or toxins from blood

Before they reach systemic circulation through hepatic veins

Liver removes and stores excess nutrients

Corrects nutrient deficiencies by mobilizing stored reserves or

performing synthetic activities

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The Liver

Metabolic Activities of the Liver

Carbohydrate metabolism

Lipid metabolism

Amino acid metabolism

Waste product removal

Vitamin storage

Mineral storage

Drug inactivation

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The Liver

Functions of Hematological Regulation

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

Phagocytosis and antigen presentation

Synthesis of plasma proteins
Removal of circulating hormones
Removal of antibodies
Removal or storage of toxins
Synthesis and secretion of bile

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The Liver

The Functions of Bile

Dietary lipids are not water soluble
Mechanical processing in stomach creates large drops
containing lipids
Pancreatic lipase is not lipid soluble

Interacts only at surface of lipid droplet

Bile salts break droplets apart (emulsification)

Increases surface area exposed to enzymatic attack

Creates tiny emulsion droplets coated with bile salts

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Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Liver

Functions of Bile

Emulsification of fats increase surface area for

pancreatic lipase to work
Facilitates absorption of lipids by intestinal
epithelium

Digestion in the Small Intestine

The Gallbladder

Stores bile
Concentrates bile

End of Digestion in Small Intestines

Brush border Enzymes complete digestion

Maltase maltose to glucose

Sucrase sucrose to glucose and fructose
Lactase lactose to glucose and galactose
Dipeptidases and Peptidases dipeptides and
tripeptides to amino acids

Absorption in the Small Intestine

Substances absorbed in the small intestines are:

Monosaccharides-absorbed by the duodenum and

upper jejunum; co-transport with sodium

Amino Acids- absorbed by the end of the jejunum;

co-transport with sodium and facilitated diffusion

Absorption in the Small Intestine

Fatty acids and Monoglycerides

absorbed in the duodenum, jejunum and ileum

diffusion in water-soluble micelles which diffuse into
epithelial cells of villi
Fatty acids and monoglycerides combine to form
triglycerides
Triglycerides combine with cholesterol, lipoprotein and
phospholipids to form chylomicrons
Chylomicrons then diffuse into lacteals

Absorption in the Small Intestine

Vitamins
- C and B by passive diffusion
- B12 with intrinsic factor active transport
- A,D,E & K with micelles

Large Intestine

Parts of the Large Intestine

Cecum
Colon - Ascending, Transverse, Descending
and Sigmoid
Rectum
Anal canal

The Large Intestine

Anal Sphincters

Internal anal sphincter

Circular muscle layer of muscularis externa

Has smooth muscle cells, not under voluntary control

External anal sphincter

Encircles distal portion of anal canal

A ring of skeletal muscle fibers, under voluntary control

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The Large Intestine

Histology of the Large Intestine

Lack

villi

Abundance
Presence

of mucous cells

of distinctive intestinal glands

Are

deeper than glands of small intestine

Are

dominated by mucous cells

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The Large Intestine

Histology of the Large Intestine

Does

not produce enzymes

Provides
Large

lubrication for fecal material

lymphoid nodules are scattered throughout

the lamina propria and submucosa

The

longitudinal layer of the muscularis externa is

reduced to the muscular bands of taeniae coli

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The Large Intestine

Figure 2424 The Mucosa and Glands of the Colon.

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The Large Intestine

Absorption in the Large Intestine

Reabsorption

of water

Reabsorption

of bile salts

In

the cecum

Transported

in blood to liver

Absorption

of vitamins produced by bacteria

Absorption

of organic wastes

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The Large Intestine

Vitamins
Are

organic molecules
Important as cofactors or coenzymes in
metabolism
Normal bacteria in colon make three vitamins that
supplement diet

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The Large Intestine

Three Vitamins Produced in the Large Intestine
1.

Vitamin K (fat soluble):

Required by liver for synthesizing four clotting factors,

including prothrombin

2.

Biotin (water soluble):

3.

Important in glucose metabolism

Pantothenic acid: B5 (water soluble):

Required in manufacture of steroid hormones and some

neurotransmitters

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The Large Intestine

Organic Wastes
Bacteria

convert bilirubin to urobilinogens and

stercobilinogens
Urobilinogens

absorbed into bloodstream are excreted

in urine
Urobilinogens

and stercobilinogens in colon convert to

urobilins and stercobilins by exposure to oxygen

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The Large Intestine

Organic Wastes
Bacteria

break down peptides in feces and

generate
Ammonia:

as soluble ammonium ions

Indole

and skatole:

nitrogen compounds responsible for odor of feces

Hydrogen

sulfide:

gas that produces rotten egg odor

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The Large Intestine

Organic Wastes
Bacteria

feed on indigestible carbohydrates

(complex polysaccharides)
Produce

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flatus, or intestinal gas, in large intestine

Large Intestine

Simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells

Mucus

Protects intestinal wall and holds fecal matter

together
Contains sodium bicarbonate that neutralizes
acids produced by bacterial metabolism

Large Intestine

Produces large amounts of water and

electrolytes when irritated
Movement of fecal matter is due to peristalsis,
segmentation and contraction of longitudinal
muscle bands