ME 3162

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
(II)
Mustafizur Rahman
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
NUS

Topics
1.

Introduction to machining and machine tools

2.

Mechanics of metal cutting (basics)

3.

Tool materials

4.

Tool life and tool wear

5.

Economics of machining

References:
1. Fundamentals of metal machining and machine tools by Geoffrey
Boothroyd, McGraw-Hill Book Company
2. Metal cutting theory and practice by A. Bhattacharya, Central
Book Publishers, India

ME 3162 (II)
Part 1:
Introduction to Machining and Machine Tools

Methods to shape a component

1. By putting materials together (+)
2. By moving material from one region to another (0)
3. By removing unnecessary material (-)

Methods to generate a required shape

1. By putting materials together (+)
E.g. Welding, Rapid Prototyping

Methods to generate a required shape

2. By moving material from one region to another (0)
E.g. Rolling, Forging
Forging

Methods to generate a required shape

3. By removing unnecessary material (-)
E.g. Turning, Milling

Material removal - metal cutting

Metal cutting is an important shaping process whereby the
component shape and size is generated by removing excess material
from the original workpiece by a cutting tool which interferes with,
and moves relative to, the workpiece.

tool

workpiece

Material removal - metal cutting

Three basic elements required:
1. The cutting tool for removal of excess material
2. The workpiece or component to be shaped
3. The machine tool which supports the tool and the workpiece and
provides relative motion, power and associated force to sustain
the interference (cut) and generate the component shape and size.

Material removal - metal cutting

Three basic elements:
1. The cutting tool
2. The workpiece
3. The machine tool

E.g. Drilling and machine

A circular cylindrical hole is
generated in the workpiece
(Element 2) by the twist drill
(Element 1) using the drilling
machine (Element 3).

Material removal - metal cutting

Three basic elements:
1. The cutting tool
2. The workpiece
3. The machine tool

E.g. Turning and lathe.

Axi-symmetrical parts are
generated on the workpiece
(Element 2) by the turning tool
(Element 1) using the lathe
(Element 3).

Material removal - metal cutting

Three basic elements:
1. The cutting tool
2. The workpiece
3. The machine tool

E.g. Milling and machine

Prismatic components are
generated on the workpiece
(Element 2) by the milling
tool (Element 1) using the
milling machine (Element 3)

Material removal - metal cutting

Complex geometric features and multiple operations
Using a specialised set of
fixtures and elaborate
and complicated setup.

Material removal - metal cutting

Complex geometric features and multiple operations
With computer numerical controlled (CNC) machines, such as
machining centres, several types of operations, such as milling,
boring, drilling and taping, can be used for machining complex
shaped components on one machine with one major set up.

Material removal - metal cutting

Complex geometric features and multiple operations
A CNC machine has a tool carousel to store tools which are
automatically located and picked by an automated mechanical arm for
each operation so that multiple operations can be performed on a single
workpiece in a single setup.

Material removal - metal cutting

Machining is an important process because it:

1. Can produce a very wide variety of shapes and sizes of component
2. Can produce shapes and sizes with high dimensional accuracy and
very good surface finish
3. Can be computer controlled and automated
If possible, avoid machining; otherwise, minimize the amount of
machining required on the parts, e.g. machining of reference surfaces
on cast parts.
Need for machining includes close tolerances, good surface finish,
special geometric features such as threads, precision holes, cylindrical
sections with high degree of roundness, and shapes cannot be
achieved by machining.

Objectives of Machining Processes:

1. The process must be physically feasible, i.e. it should be
possible to remove material from the component by cutting
and arrive at the desired shape, size and surface finish.
2. The process must be technologically as efficient and
economical as possible in producing components
3. The process must be capable of competing with other
manufacturing (shaping) process in producing components.

Satisfying objectives 1 and 2 assist in making machining

more competitive. Objective 3 attempts to ensure that
machining is considered in the light of broader spectrum of
manufacturing processes.

Performance Measures and Criteria for

Assessing Machining Objectives:
1. Tool life, or time to tool failure, is required to be infinite
(ideally) or maximum (in practice).
2. Forces and power are required to be nil or minimum.
3. Shape and size variation are required to be nil or minimum.
4. Surface finish/roughness are required to be nil or minimum
5. Component production rate are required to be infinite or
maximum.

Variables affecting machining performance

1. Tool material properties chemical, physical, etc.

2. Tool geometry rake angle, clearance angle, etc.

3. Cut geometry (thickness, width, shape).
4. Cutting speed.
Machine tool variables rigidity
Cutting fluid used
Cost and time variables, component dimensions

Variables affecting machining performance

1. Tool material properties chemical, physical, etc.

2. Tool geometry rake angle, clearance angle, etc.

3. Cut geometry (thickness, width, shape).
4. Cutting speed.
Machine tool variables rigidity
Cutting fluid used
Cost and time variables, component
dimensions

Cutting motions
Two directions of motions: rotation of workpiece about its axis and
feed of tool parallel to its axis
Primary motion (-C)

ap : depth of cut
kr : major cutting edge angle
ap
kr
Seconday feed motion (-Z)

Cutting motions
Rotational motion of the
workpiece at V relative to the
tool:

Ve

V nwd
where nw, rotational speed of spindle
and d is diameter of the workpiece

Feed of tool at Vf relative to the

workpiece.

Vf
d

Tool and cut geometries

Feed engagement
Major cutting edge

angle kr

ac

Back engagement
(depth of cut)

ap

Undeformed chip thickness

ac = f sin k r
kr

f
ac

Tool and cut geometries

V nwd

nw

Vav

nw d w d m

Seconday feed motion (-Z)

where nw, rotational speed of spindle

dw, original diameter
dm, machined diameter

Tool and cut geometries

Chip cross-section area Ac of the layer of the material being removed is

approximately given by
Ac = f ap
where f is the feed per revolution
f = Vf /nw

Tool and cut geometries

nw

Secondary feed motion (-Z)

Material removal rate:

Z w AcVav
f apVav

dw = dm + 2ap

f ap nw d w d m

2
f ap nw ( d m a p )

Removal rate and power required

Material removal rate
When the depth of cut ap is small compared to the diameter of
the machined surface dm,
Z w . f .a p .nw .( d m a p ) . f .a p .nw .d m

Power required
If energy required to remove unit volume of material, is ps; then
power Pm required to perform any machining operation,
Pm= ps Zw
Electrical power consumed
If efficiency of the machine tool motor and drive systems is m, the
electrical power Pe consumed by the machine tool,
Pe = Pm / m

Other turning operations

Vertical Milling

Vertical Milling
Feed per revolution

Vf
nt

Feed per tooth a f

f
N

where Vf is the feed speed

nt is rotational frequency
N is number of teeth

Vf

dt

nt

ap
acma
x

Vf

Vertical Milling

Vertical Milling

dt /2

If tool axis is aligned to

that of the workpiece the
maximum undeformed
chip thickness
acmax = af

lw

d t /2

(dt /2) - ae

Vertical Milling

The maximum undeformed chip

thickness acmax (measured
normal to the direction of
primary motion
ac max a f sin

f
sin
N
where is given by,

af

cos

acmax

d t / 2 ae
dt / 2

2ae
1
dt

sin 1 cos2

Vertical Milling
2a
cos 1 e
dt
(dt /2) - ae

2 ae / d t (ae / d t ) 2

ac m ax

Vf
nt

f
sin
N
2V f ae
Nnt

ae
(1 )
dt
dt

For small ae / dt

af

ac m ax

acmax

2V f
Nnt

ae
dt

Material removal rate

Z w ae a pV f

where ae is the depth of cut and ap is the width of

the workpiece

(d t / 2) sin (dt / 2)2 ae / dt (ae / dt ) 2

Travelling distance is given by

lw 2 ae (dt ae )
where, lw is the length of workpiece
Thus, the machining time

tm

lw 2 ae (d t ae )
Vf

(dt /2) - ae

Vertical Milling

Drilling

Drilling
Most common is a twist drill which has two
cutting edges. On each edge,
dm

f
ac sin k r
2
where kr, is the major cutting edge angle
The machining time tm is given by

kr

tm

lw

f .nt

where lw is the length of the drilled hole and

nt is the rotational frequency of the tool

Drilling
Metal removal rate Zw (cross-sectional area
of hole feed speed Vf)

dm

Zw

d m2 .V f

. f .d m2 .nt
4

If an existing hole of diameter dw is

enlarged to dm

kr

Zw

f (d m2 d w2 ).nt
4