Ac Sinusoidal CKT

Chapter 5
Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis

1. Identify the frequency, angular frequency, peak value,
rms value, and phase of a sinusoidal signal.
2. Solve steady-state ac circuits using phasors and
complex impedances.
3. Compute power for steady-state ac
4. Find Thvenin and Norton equivalent circuits.
5. Determine load impedances for maximum power
transfer.
5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis
* In most circuits, the transient response (i.e., the

complimentary solution) decays rapidly to zero, the steadystate response (i.e., the forced response or the particular
solution) persists.
* In this chapter, we learn efficient methods for finding the
steady-state responses for sinusoidal sources.
5.1 Sinusoidal Currents and Voltages

5.1.1 Phase and Phase Angle
* Consider the sinusoidal voltage as shown,
v ( t ) V m cos t where
V m is the Peak value of the voltage
is the angular frequency in rad/s
is the phase angle (usually in degree)
Since the angle increases by 2 per cycle
we have : T 2 , T is the period in s,
the frequency in Hz (or s - 1 ) : f
1
T
2
2 f
T
5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.1 Sinusoidal Current and Voltage
5.1.1 Phase and Phase Angle

* We usually use cosine function to model a sinusoidal signal.
In case there is a sine function, we can use the following
conversion:
sin(z) cos(z - 90)

For exam ple :
v x t 10 sin200t 30
v x t 10 cos200t 30 90
10 cos200t 60
and thus we can say that the phase angle of v x (t) is - 60

5.1.2 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values (or Effective Values)
Consider applying a periodic voltage v(t) with period T to a resistance R.
v 2 t
The power delivered to the resistance is given by pt
,
R
the energy delivered per period is : E T
pt dt
T
The average powe per period is :

1 T 2
ET
1
1
v t
Pav
pt dt
dt
v ( t )dt / R
0
0
0
T
T
T
R
T
By defining the root - m ean - squre (rm s) value of the periodic voltage v(t) as :
T
V rms
1
T
T
0
v t dt , we have Pavg
2
V rms
Sim ilarly,if we define the rm s value of the periodic current as :

I rms
1
T
T
0
i 2 t dt , we have Pavg I rms R

2
5.1.3 RMS Value of a Sinusoid
Consider a sinusoidal voltage given by :

v t Vm cos t
Vrms
Vm
2T
Vm
2T
Vrms
Vm
2
1
v (t)dt
T
2
T
0
Vm cos 2 t dt
2
1 cos2 t 2 dt
T
1
1
sin
2
sin
2
2
2
0.7071Vm Note : residential power : 110Vrms (Vm 155.5V),60 Hz
Sim ilarly, I rms
Im
2
0.7071 I m
6

Example 5.1 Power delivered to a resistance by a sinusoidal source
Given : a v(t) 100cos(100t) V

is applied to a 50 resistance
Find : V rms , the average power Pavg
and pt
f /2 50 H z , T 1/f 20 m s
V rms V m / 2 70.71V
2
V rms
( 70.71 ) 2
Pavg
100 W
R
50
v 2 t 100 2 cos 2 100 t
P t
R
50
200 cos 2 100 t W
100 100 cos200 t W

5.2 Phasors
5.2.1 Definition
* A phasor is a vector in complex number plane that represents
the magnitude and phase of a sinusoid.
* In ac circuit analysis, voltages and currents are usually
represented as phasors.
For a sinusoidal voltage of the form v1 t V1 cos t 1

we define the phasor as : V1 V1 1
If the sinusoid is of the form v 2 t V2 sin t 2
we can convert it to v 2 t V2 cos t 2 90, therefore

V 2 V2 ( 2 90 )
Similarly, for i1 t I 1 cos t 1 and i2 t I 2 sin t 2

we can write I 1 I 1 1 and I 2 I 2 ( 2 90 )
5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.2 Phasors

5.2.1 Definition
* Eulers Identity:
complex exponential e j cos j sin

Ae j A cos jA sin
Ae j( t ) Acos( t ) jAsin( t )
Acos( t ) Re (Ae j( t ) )
* In phasor application:
In circuit application, Ae j( t ) is sim plified to the form Ae j

by deleting the term Ae jwt .
As a result,
A cos( t ) is presented as Re(Ae j ) or sim ply its phasor form

A A A cos( t )
For exam ple, the sinusoidal voltage
v 1 (t) V1 cos( t 1 ) is presented as V1 V1 1
9

5.2.4 Phasor vs. Sinusoids
* The phasor is simply a snapshot of a
rotating vector at t=0.
complex exponential e j cos j sin

Ae j A cos jA sin
Ae j( t ) Acos( t ) jAsin( t )
Acos( t ) Re (Ae j( t ) )
Consider the sinusoidal voltage as shown :

vt Vm cos t
It' s just the real part of a rotating vector :
vt Re Vm e j t
Vm e j t Vm ( t ) and
at t 0, v(0) Vm cos Vm
The phasor for v(t) is defined as :
V Vm
10

5.2.2 Phasor Summation
Consider the sum m ation of three voltages
v(t) 10 cos( t) 5 sin( t 60 ) 5 cos( t 90 )

We first rewrite all the functions to cosine form
v t 10 cos t 5 cos t 30 5 cos t 90
v t Re 10e
5e
5e
Re 10 5 e
5 e e
Re 10e j t Re 5 e j ( t 30 ) Re 5 e j ( t 90 )
j ( t 30 )
jt
j 30
j ( t 90 )
j 90
jt
In Euler' s Identity (or in polar form ) :
v t Re 100 5 30 590 e j t
Consider the com plex num ber :

100 5 30 590 10 4.33 j 2.50 j 5
14.33 j 2.5 14.549.90 14.54 e j 9.90
v t Re 14.54 e
v t Re 14.54 e j 9.90 e j t
j ( t 9.90 )
14.54 cos t 9.90
11

5.2.2 Phasor Summation
Now we use Phasor notation to simplify our calculation:
vt 10 cos t 5 sin t 60 5 cos t 90

vt 10 cos t 5 cos t 30 5 cos t 90
V V1 V2 V3
100 5 30 590
10 4.33 j 2.50 j 5
14.33 j 2.5
14.549.90
V 14.549.90
vt 14.54 cos t 9.90

Note: In using phasors to add sinusoids, all of the terms must
have the same frequency.
12

Example 5.2 Using phasors to Add Sinusoids
Suppose that v1 t 20 cos t 45

v 2 t 10 sin t 60
Find v s (t) v1 (t) v 2 (t)

The phasors are : V1 20 45 and V2 10 30
V s V1 V2
20 45 10 30
14.14 j14.14 8.660 j 5
23.06 j19.14
29.97 39.7
v s t 29.97 cos t 39.7
13

5.2.3 Fundamental Phasor Operations
If V1 V1 1 , V 2 V2 2 , then
Multiplication : V1 V 2 V1V2 1 2
Division :
V1 V1
1 - 2
V 2 V2
Reciprocal :
1
1
1
-1
V1 V1 1 V1
Square Root :
V1 V1 1 /2
14

5.2.5 Phase Relationships
Consider the voltages :
v1 t 3 cos t 40 and v 2 t 4 cos t 20
They can be represented as : V1 340 and V2 4 20

and we may say that :
V1 leads V2 by 60 or V2 lags V1 by 60 .
15
5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.3 Complex

Impedances
5.3.1 Impedance
* Impedance means complex resistance.
* The impedance concept is equivalent to stating that capacitors and
inductors act as frequency-dependent resistors.
* By using impedances, we can solve sinusoidal steady-state circuit
with relatively ease compared to the methods of Chapter 4.
* Except for the fact that we use complex arithmetic, sinusoidal steadystate analysis is the same as the analysis of resistive circuits.
16
5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.3 Complex Impedances

5.3.2 Inductance
Consider a current i L t I m sin t flow through an inductor :
diL t
L I m cos t
dt
In their phasor forms : I L I m ( 90 ) and V L L I m Vm
v L t L
Note : the current lags the voltage by 90
Rewrite voltage as : V L L90 I m ( 90 ) j L I L

Define the impedance of the inductance as : Z L j L L90
We have : V L Z L I L
This is Ohm' s law in phasor form.
17

5.3.3 Capacitance
Consider a voltage v C (t) Vm cos( t ) across a capacitor

dv C
i C (t) C
-CV m sin( t ) CV m cos( t 90 )
dt
In their phasor form s : VC Vm , I C CV m 90 I m 90
Note : the current leads voltage by 90
1
1
- 90 I m 90
- 90 I C
C
C
1
1
Define the im pedance of capacitance as : Z C
- 90
jC C
Rewrite voltage as VC Vm
we have : VC Z C I C
18
* ELI the ICE man.

* Impedance that are pure imaginary are called reactance.
5.3.4 Resistance
Definethe impedance of resistance as Z R R

we have : VR R I R
19
20

Quiz - Exercises 5.6, 5.7, 5.8
21

Quiz - Exercises 5.6, 5.7, 5.8
22

Additional Example: represent the circuit shown in the
frequency domain using impedances and phasors.
23

Additional Example: represent the circuit shown in the
frequency domain using impedances and phasors.
24
5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.4 Circuit Analysis

5.4 Circuit Analysis
* Impedance circuit analysis is the same as resistive circuit
analysis, we can directly apply KCL, KVL, nodal analysis,
mesh analysis,
KVL equation :
v1 t v 2 t v3 t 0 V1 V2 V3 0
KCL equations :
i1 (t) i2 (t) - i3 (t) 0 I 1 I 2 - I 3 0
* The above phasor approach can only apply for steady state
with sinusoids of the same frequency.
25

Example 5.3 Steady-State AC Analysis of a Series Circuit
* Find the steady-state current, the phasor voltage across each
element, and construct a phasor diagram.
1
j 50
C
R Z L Z C 100 j150 j 50 100 j100 141.4 45
V s 10030, Z L j L j150 , Z C j
Z eq
Vs
10030
0.707 15
Z 141.4 45
i t 0.707 cos500t 15
I
V R R I 100 0.707 15 70.7 15

V L j L I 15090 0.707 15 106.175
VC j
1
I 50 90 0.707 15 35.4 105
C
26
Example 5.4 Series/Parallel Combination of Complex Impedances
* Find the voltage across the capacitor, the phasor current

through each element, and construct a phasor diagram
V s 10 - 90 , Z L j L j100 , Z C j
Z RC
1
j100
C
1
1
10
70.71 45
1 R 1 Z C 1 100 1 ( j100 ) 0.0141445
Z RC 50 j 50
VC V s
Z RC
70.71 45
10 90
10 180
Z L Z RC
j100 50 j 50
vC t 10 cos1000t 180 10 cos1000t

I
Vs
10 90
10 90
0.1414 135
Z L Z RC
j100 50 j 50 50 j 50
VC 10 180
0.1 180
R
100
V
10 180 10 180
IC C
0.1 90
ZC
j100
100 90
IR
27

Example 5.5 Steady-State AC Node-Voltage Analysis
* Find the voltage at node 1 using nodal analysis
Write KCL at node1 and node 2

V1 V1 - V2
2 - 90
10
- j5
V2 V2 V1
1.50
j10
j5
0.1 j0.2 V1 j0.2V2 j 2
j0.2V1 j0.1V2 1.5
Solve for V1 :
V1 16.129.7 or v1 t 16.1 cos100t 29.7
28

Exercise 5.11 Steady-State AC Mesh-Current Analysis
* Solve for the mesh currents
29

Additional Example :
Deter min e B and L

when i(t) Bcos (3t - 51.87 )A
30

31

32

Additional Example : Commercial Airliner Door Bridge Circuit
33

34

35

36

Quiz Exercise 5.10
* Find the phasor voltage and phasor current at each element
37
5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.5 Power in AC Circuit

5.5 Power in AC Circuit
5.5.1 Voltage, Current and Impedance
In the network, v(t) Vm cos( t) or V Vm 0

the impedance Z Z R jX
where Z R 2 X 2 , tan -1 (X/R)
V Vm 0
The phasor current is I
I m
Z
Z
where I m
Vm
Z
(Note : If V Vm v , then
I I m v - I m i , where v - i )
38

5.5.2 Voltage, Current and Power for a Resistive Load
If the load is pure resistive,
Z R0, 0
v t Vm cos t
i t
Vm
cos( t) I m cos t
R
pt v t i t Vm I m cos 2 t
1 1
cos2 t)
2 2
V I
The average power P m m Vrms I rms
2
Vm I m (
(1) Current is in phase with voltage.

(2) Energy flows continuously from
source to load.
39

5.5.3 Voltage, Current and Power for an Inductive Load
If the load is pure inductance,
Z L90 , 90
v t Vm cos t
i t I m cos t 90
I m sin t
pt v t i t
Vm I m cos t sin t
Vm I m
sin2 t Vrms I rms sin2t

2
The average power P 0
(1) Current lags the voltage by 90 degree (ELI)

(2) Half of the power is positive, energy is delivered to the inductance
and stored in the magnetic field; the other half of the power is
negative, the inductance returns energy to the source.
(3) The average power is zero, and we say reactive power flows back40
and forth in-between the source and the load.

5.5.4 Voltage, Current and Power for a Capacitive Load
If the load is pure capacitance,
1
Z
- 90 , -90
C
v t Vm cos t
i t I m cos t 90
I m sin t
pt v t i t
Vm I m cos t sin t
Vm I m
sin2 t Vrms I rms sin 2 t

2
The average power P 0
(1) Current leads the voltage by 90 degree (ICE)

(2) The average power is zero: reactive power flows back and forth inbetween the source and the load.
(3) Reactive power is negative (positive) for a capacitance
(inductance).
(4) Reactive power in inductance and in capacitance cancel each 41
other.

5.5.5 Power Calculation for a General (RLC) Load
For general RLC load, Z R jX Z , - 90 90

vt Vm cos t
i t I m cos t
pt Vm I m cos t cos t
Vm I m cos cos 2 t Vm I m sin cos t sin t
Vm I m
Vm I m
cos 1 cos2 t
sin sin2 t
2
2
0 : pure resistive, only the 1st term remains;
90 : pure reactive, only the second term remains.

Active (Real) load due to R
Reactive load due to L, C
42

vt Vm cos t
vt Vm cos t v
i t I m cos t
pt Vm I m cos t cos t
p(t) Vm I m cos cos 2 t
Vm I m sin cos t sin t
pt
Vm I m
cos 1 cos2 t
2
Vm I m
sin sin2 t
2
i t I m cos t i , v - i
I m cos( t v - )
pt Vm I m cos t v cos t v
pt Vm I m cos cos 2 t v
Vm I m sin cos t v sin t v
Vm I m
pt
cos 1 cos2( t v )
2
Vm I m
sin sin2( t v )
2
Since the terms involving cos(2( t v )) and sin(2(t v ))

have average values of zero, the average(real) power P is :
Vm I m
P
cos , using Vrms Vm / 2 and I rms I m / 2 ,
2
we have P Vrms I rms cos
43

Vm I m
V I
cos 1 cos2 t m m sin sin2 t
2
2
V I
Average Power: P m m cos Vrms I rms cos W
2
pt
Power Factor: PF cos , v i is called the power angle

Power factor is often stated as percentage, e.g.,
90% lagging (i.e., current lags voltage, inductive load)
60% leading (i.e., current leads voltage, capacitive load)
Q
Vm I m
sin V
sin VAR (Volt Amperes Reactive)
rms rms
Reactive Power:
2
The last term in power formula is the power flowing back and forth
between the source and the energy-storage elements. Reactive
power is its peak power.
Apparent Power: S Vrms I rms VA (Volt - Ampere)
P 2 Q 2 Vrms I rms cos 2 Vrms I rms sin 2 Vrms I rms

2
Note: 5kW load is different from 5kVA load.
44

45

5.5.6 Impedance triangle and Power Triangle
* The impedance triangle:
* The Power triangle:

Apparent power, average (real) power, and reactive power form a
triangle.
S Vrms I rms VA (Volt - Ampere)
P 2 Q 2 Vrms I rms cos 2 Vrms I rms sin 2 Vrms I rms
2
46

5.5.6 Impedance triangle and Power Triangle
pt
Z Z R j X , cos
The average power P
Vm I m
V I
cos 1 cos2 t m m sin sin2 t
2
2
R
X
, sin
Z
Z
Vm I m
V I
R
cos m m
2
2
Z
2
I
2
(Note : V m I m Z )
m R I rms R
2
V I
2
Sim ilarly, the reactive power Q m m sin I rms X
2
(X 0, inductive load; X 0, capacitive load)
2
V Rrms
Also : P
where V Rrms is the voltage acrtoss the resistance
R
2
V Xrms
Q
whereV Xrms is the voltage across the reactance
X
2
Vm I m R Vm R
Vm R 2 1 VRm 1 VRrms
P
2 Z
2 Z2
2 Z2 R
2 R
R
2
47

Example 5.6 AC Power Calculation
(1) Find the power and reactive power taken from the source
v i 90 ( 135 ) 45
Vs ,rms
Vs
I rms
10
2
7.071V
0.1414
0.1 A
2
2
The power : P Vs ,rms I rms cos
7.071 0.1 cos45 0.5W

The reactive power Q Vs ,rms I rms sin
7.071 0.1 sin45 0.5VAR
48

Example 5.6 AC Power Calculation
(2) The reactive power delivered to the inductor :

QL I rms X L ( 0.1 ) 2 ( 100 ) 1.0VAR
2
(3) The reactive power delivered to the capacitor :

2
0.1
2
QC I C ,rms X C
( 100 ) 0.5VAR
2
(4) The (real) power delivered to the resistance :
2
( Note : Q QL QC )
IR
0.1
2
PR I R ,rms R
R
100 0.5W
2
2
Of course, the power absorbed by the capacitance and inductance is 0
PL 0 , PC 0
2
All of the power delivedrd by the source is absorbed by the resistance.
49
Additional Example:
50
Additional Example:
51
Additional Example:
52
Additional Example:
53
Additional Example:
54
Additional Example:
55

Example 5.7 Using Power Triangles
Find power, reactive power, and power factor for the source
and the phasor currents as shown.
We first find the power and reactive power for each load, then
sum over to obtain the power and reactive power for the
source.
56

For load A, we have : cos A 0.5
PA Vrms I Arms cos A 10 4 ( 0.5 ) 5 kW
Q A Vrms I Arms PA
2
5000
10 4
8.660kVAR
For load B, B arccos( 0.7 ) 45.57

Q B PB tan B 5000 tan45.57
Q B 5.101kVAR
The power and reactive power delivered by the source :
P PA PB 5 5 10 kW
Q Q A Q B 8.660 5.101 3.559kVAR
57

The power and reactive power delivered by source :

P PA PB 10 kW , Q Q A QB 3.559kVAR
The power angle : tan 1 Q/P 19.59
The power factor : cos 0.9421 or 94.21% leading.

The apparent power : S Vrms I rms P 2 Q 2 10.61kVA
The effectivesource voltage: Vrms V / 2 1kV
The effectivecurrent : I rms Vrms I rms /Vrms 10.61 A
I m I 2 I rms 15 A
i v 30 ( 19.59 ) 49.59, I I i 1549.59
58
5.5.7 Power-Factor Correction
59

Example 5.8 Power-Factor Correction
A 50kW load operates from a 60-Hz 10kV-rms line with a power
factor of 60% lagging. Compute the capacitance that must
be placed in parallel with the load to achieve a 90% lagging
power factor.
L cos 1 ( 0.6 ) 53.13
QL P tan 66.67 kVAR

new cos 1 ( 0.9 ) 25.84
50kW
PF 0.6
Qnew P tan new 24.22kVAR

QC Qnew QL 42.45kVAR
2
Vrms
10 4
XC
2356
QC
42450
2 60 377.0
1
1
C
1.126 F
X C 377 2356
QL 66.67kVA
Qnew 22.42kVA
P 50kW
60

Quiz - Exercise 5.12 Power in AC Circuits
.
61
5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.6 Thevenin and Norton

5.6 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
* A two terminal circuit composed of sinusoidal sources (of the
same frequency), resistances, capacitances, and
inductances can be simplified to Thevenin or Norton
equivalent circuit.
5.6.1 Thevenin Equivalent Circuits
Vt Voc
Voc Vt
Zt
I sc I sc
* The Thevenin impedance can also be
obtained by zeroing sources.
5.6.2 Norton Equivalent Circuits
Zt
Voc Vt
I sc I sc
I n I sc
62

Example 5.9 Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
We find Z t by zeroing sources
Zt
1
1 100 1 ( j100 )
1
0.0141445
70.71 45
50 j 50
Apply short circuit at terminals
Vs
1000
IR
10 A
100
100
I sc I R I s
1 190
1.414 45 A
Vt I sc Z t
1.414 45 70.71 45
100 90 V
63

Additional Example:
64
65

5.6.1 Maximum Power Transfer
Assume Z t Rt jX t , ZL R L jX L
I Vt /(Zt Z L ) Vt /[(Rt R L ) j(X t X L )]
I m Vtm / Z Vtm /[(Rt R L ) 2 (X t X L ) 2 ] 1/2
Avg.output power P I
P Pmax when
2
rms
Vtm2 R L
1
RL
2 [(Rt R L ) 2 (X t X L ) 2 ]
P
P
0 and
0
R L
X L
R L Rt and X L -X t ZL Rt - X t
i.e., when Zload Z t
we have max. power output
Z total Z t Z load Rt j X t Rt j X t 2Rt

If Z load can only be resistive, then when
Z load Rload Z t we have max. output power.
66

Example 5.10 Maximum Power Transfer
Since Z t 50 j 50
(a) we will have max. output power when
Z load Z t 50 j 50
*
Vt
100 90
Ia
1 90
Z t Z load 50 j 50 50 j 50
2
1
2
P I arms Rload
( 50 ) 25W
2
(b) If the load has to be resistive,

Rload Z t 50 j 50 70.71
Ib
Vt
100 90
Z t Z load 50 j 50 70.71
100 90
0.765 67.50
130.66 22.50
2
0.7653
2
P I brms Rload
70.71 20.71W
2
67

Quiz Exercise 5.14 and Exercise 5.15
68

Quiz Exercise 5.14
69

Quiz Exercise 5.15
70

Quiz Exercise 5.15
71
5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis SUMMARY
72
73
74
Chapter 6
Frequency Response, Bode Plots,
and Resonance
1. State the fundamental concepts of Fourier analysis.
2. Determine the output of a filter for a given input
consisting of sinusoidal components using the
filters transfer function.
3. Use circuit analysis to determine the transfer
functions of simple circuits.
4. Draw first-order lowpass or highpass filter circuits
and sketch their transfer functions.
5. Understand decibels, logarithmic frequency scales,
and Bode plots.
6. Calculate parameters for series and parallel
resonant circuits.
6. Frequency Response 6.1 Fourier Analysis, Filters, Transfer Functions

6.1 Fourier Analysis, Filters, and Transfer Functions
6.1.1 Fourier Analysis
* Most real-world information-bearing electrical signals are not
sinusoidal.
* Fourier theorem tells that a non-sinusoidal signal can be
expressed by the summation of sinusoidal functions in the
form:.
a0 a1cos( 0 t) b1 sin( 0 t ) a2 cos(2 0 t) b2 sin( 2 t ) ...

an cos(n 0 t) bn sin(n 0 t) ...
76

6.1.1 Fourier Analysis
* All real-world signals are sums of sinusoidal components
having various frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
* The square wave is a special example:
v sq (t)
4A
4A
4A
sin(0 t)
sin(30 t)
sin(50 t) ...
3
5
where 0 2 T
* Most of the real-world signals are

confined to finite range of frequency.
* It is important to learn how the circuits
respond to components having
different frequencies.
77

6.1.2 Filters
* Filters process the sinusoidal components of an input signal
differently depending of the frequency of each component.
Often, the goal of the filter is to retain the components in
certain frequency ranges and reject components in other
frequency ranges.
78

6.1.3 Filters and Transfer Functions
* Since the impedances of inductances and capacitances
change with frequency, RLC circuits provide one way to
realize electrical filters.
1
1
Z L L90 2fL 90, Z C
- 90
- 90
C
2f
* The transfer function of a two-port filter is defined as:
H (f ) H(f)) H(f)
Vout
Vin
where H(f) is the magnitude

H(f) Vout - Vin is the phase
79

Example 6.1 Using Transfer Function to Find Output
For the transfer functions shown, find the output signal,
given the input: vin ( t ) 2 cos( 2000t 40 )
The frequency of the input signal is f 1000 Hz

Vout
H ( 1000 ) 330
Vin
Vin 240 Vout H ( 1000 )* Vin 330 240 6 70
vout (t ) 6 cos(2000 t 70 )
80

Example 6.2 Multi-input components, Superposition Principle
The input involves two components:

vin ( t ) 2cos( 2000t ) cos( 4000t 70 )
Vin 1
Vin 2
We use superpos ition principle :

Vout 1 H ( 1000 ) Vin 1 330 20 6 30
Vout 2 H ( 2000 ) Vin 2 260 1 70 2 10
vout ( t ) vout 1 ( t ) vout 2 ( t )

vout ( t ) 6 cos( 2000t 30 ) 2 cos( 4000t 10 )
81

Example 6.2 Multi-input components, Superposition Principle
vin ( t ) 2cos( 2000t ) cos( 4000t 70 )
vout ( t ) 6 cos( 2000t 30 ) 2 cos( 4000t 10 )
82
6. Frequency Response 6.2 First-Order Low-Pass Filters

Ideal Filters
83

6.2 First Order Low-Pass Filters
A low-pass filter is designed to pass low-frequency
components and reject high-frequency components. In
other words, for low frequencies, the output magnitude is
nearly the same as the input; while for high frequencies, the
output magnitude is much less than the input.
6.2.1 Transfer Function
Consider the first - order low - pass filter

as shown,the input signal is a sinusoidal
having a phasor Vin , we have
Vin
I
R 1 j2fC
H(f)
Vout
1
Vin
Vin
1
I
j2 fC
j2 fC R 1 j2 fC 1 j2 fRC
Vout
1
Vin
1 j 2fRC
We define f B
1
the " break" frequency,
2RC
the " half - power" frequency
H(f)
1
1 j( f f B )
84

6.2.2 Magnitude and Phase Plots of the Transfer Function
f
1
1
H
(
f
)
arctan(
)
H( f )
H( f )
2
fB
1 j( f f B )
1 ( f fB )
As f 0, H ( f ) 1 low - f requency components passed,
also H(f ) 0
As f f B , H(f ) 0 high - f requency components rejected,
also H(f ) 90
As f f B , H(f )
1
2
, Vout rms
1
2
2
Vin rms , since P Vrms
Half Power
85

Example 6.3 Calculation of RC Low-pass Output
vin ( t ) 5 cos( 20t ) 5 cos( 200t ) 5 cos( 2000t )

Vin 1 50, f 1 10, Vin 2 50, f 2 100,
Vin 3 50, f 3 1000
1
1
fB
100 Hz
6
2RC 2 * (1000 2 ) *10 *10
1
H( f )
H ( 10 ) 0.9950 5.71
1 j( f f B )
H ( 100 ) 0.7071 45
H ( 1000 ) 0.0995 84.29
Vout 1 H ( 10 ) Vin 1 4.975 5.71
vout 1 ( t ) 4.975 cos( 20t 5.71 )
Vout 2 H ( 100 ) Vin 2 3.53545
vout 2 ( t ) 3.535 cos( 200t 45 )

Vout 3 H ( 1000 ) Vin 3 0.4975 84.29
vout 3 ( t ) 0.4975 cos( 2000t 84.29 )
86

Example 6.3 Calculation of RC Low-pass Output
vin ( t ) 5 cos( 20t ) 5 cos( 200t ) 5 cos( 2000t )

Vin 1 50, f 1 10, Vin 2 50, f 2 100,
Vin 3 50, f 3 1000
vout ( t ) 4.975 cos( 20t 5.71 )
vout 1 (t)
3.535 cos( 200t 45 )
vout 2 (t)
0.4975 cos( 2000t 84.29 )
vout 3 (t)
87

Quiz Exercise 6.4: Another First-Order Low-Pass Filter
Show that the transfer functionis

V
1
H(f) out
Vin
1 j(f/fB )
where f B R/2L
This is also a low-pass filter

88
6. Frequency Response 6.3 Decibels and the Cascade Connection

6.2 Decibels and the Cascade Connections
6.3.1 Decibels
* We usually express the ratio of voltage (or power) amplitude
in decibels.
H( f ) H ( f ) dB 20 log H ( f )
for voltage
H( f ) H( f ) db 10log H( f ) for power
89
6. Frequency Response 6.3 Decibels and the Cascade Connection

6.3.2 Cascade two-Port Networks
Vout Vout 2 Vout 1 Vout 2 Vout 1 Vout 2

H( f )
Vin
Vin 1
Vin 1 Vout 1
Vin 1 Vin 2
H ( f ) H1 ( f ) H 2 ( f )
H ( f ) dB H 1 ( f ) dB H 2 ( f ) dB
90
6. Frequency Response 6.4 Bode Plots

6.4 Bode Plots
H( f )
1
1 ( f f B )2
91
6. Frequency Response 6.4 Bode Plots

6.4 Bode Plots
break frequency f B
H( f )
f
H ( f ) arctan
fB
1
1 ( f f B )2
H ( f ) dB 20 log
1 ( f fB )
For f f B H(f) 0 dB
For f f B /10, H(f) 0

For f 10 f B , H(f) 90
For f f B H ( f ) dB 20 log
fB
92
6. Frequency Response 6.5 First-Order High-Pass Filters

6.5 First-Order High-Pass Filters
6.5.1 Transfer Function
V
j( f f B )
H ( f ) out
Vin 1 j ( f f B )
1
fB
2RC
H( f )
f fB
1 f fB
f
H ( f ) 90 arctan
fB
93

6.5.2 Bode Plots
H( f )
f fB
1 f fB
H ( f ) dB
f 2
f
20 log 10 log 1
f B
fB
f
For f f B , H ( f ) dB 20 log
fB
For f f B , H f dB 0
For f f B /10, H f 90
For f 10 f B , H f 0
94

Exercise 6.13 Another First-Order High-Pass Filter
Show that the transfer function

of the circuit is :
H( f )
Vout
j( f f B )
Vin
1 j( f f B )
where f B R/2L
95
6. Frequency Response 6.5 First-Order Filters

First-Order Low-Pass Filters
First-Order High-Pass Filters
96
6. Frequency Response 6.6 Series Resonances

6.6.1 Resonant Circuits (Second Order)
* The resonance circuits forms the basis of second-order filters
that have better performance than the first-order filters.
* When a sinusoidal source of the proper frequency is applied
to a resonant circuit, voltage much larger then the source
can appear.
97

The impedance seen by the source is

1
Z s ( f ) j 2 fL R j
2fC
When Z s (f )is purely resistive,the f requency
f 0 is called the " resonant f requency"
2f 0 L
1
2f 0 C
f
0
1
2 LC
The quality factor is defined as the ratio of the reactance of the inductance
at the resonant frequency to the resistance : Qs 2f 0 L/R ( 1/2f 0 CR )
f
f 0
Now the impedance can be rewritten as : Z s ( f ) R 1 jQs
f
f0
98

With resonant frequency f 0
2 LC
and quality factor Qs 2f 0 L/R ( 1/2f 0 CR )
The impedance seen by the source is
f
f 0
1
R 1 jQs
Z s ( f ) j 2 fL R j
f
2fC
f0
99

6.6.2 Series Resonant Circuits as Band-Pass Filter
f
f 0
Z s ( f ) R 1 jQs
f
f0
Vs
Zs f
V R RI
Vs R
1 jQ s ( f f 0 f 0 f )
VR
-
Vs
VR
1
1 jQ s ( f f 0 f 0 f )
V s 1 jQ s ( f f 0 f 0 f )
f f0 2
2
Hf
1 Qs ( - )
Vs
f0 f
Band - Pass Filter

freq.naer f 0 pass, others rejected
VR
-1/2
100

6.6.2 Series Resonant Circuits as Band-Pass Filter
f f0 2
2
Hf
1 Qs ( )
Vs
f0 f
VR
-1/2
The half - power frequency :

occurs at H f 1/ 2
denoted as : f H and f L
Band - width is defined as :

B f H f L f 0 /Qs
f H f0
B
B
, f L f0 2
2
101

Example 6.5 Series Resonant Circuit
Resonant frequency : f 0
Quality Factor : Qs
1
2 LC
1000Hz
2f 0 L
10
R
f 0 1000
100 Hz
Qs
10
B
B
f 0 1050Hz , f L f 0 - 950Hz
2
2
Band - width : B
fH
102

Example 6.5 Series Resonant Circuit
At resonant frequency f 0 1000Hz

Z L j 2f 0 L j1000
Z c -J/2f 0 C - j1000
Z s R Z L Z c 100
I
V s 10
0.010
Zs
100
VR RI 100 0.010 10
VL Z L I j1000 0.010 1090
VC Z C I j1000 0.010 10 90
103
6. Frequency Response 6.7 Parallel Resonances
6.7 Parallel Resonance
With resonant frequency f 0
2 LC
and quality factor Q p R/(2f 0 L) (2f 0 CR)
104
6. Frequency Response 6.8 Ideal and Second-Order Filters

6.8 Ideal and Second-Order Filters
6.8.1 Ideal Filters
105

6.8.1 Ideal Filters
106

6.8.2 Second-Order Low-Pass Filter
H( f )
f0
Vout
jQ s ( f 0 f )
Vin
1 jQ s ( f f 0 f 0 f )
1
2 LC
2f 0 L
Qs
R
1
2f 0 CR
In design a filter, we want

the gain to be approximately
constant in the passband
choose Qs 1
107

6.8.2 Second-Order High-Pass Filter
108

6.8.2 Second-Order Band-Pass Filter
109

6.8.2 Second-Order Band-Reject (Notch) Filter
110

Example 6.7 Filter Design
Design a second-order filter with L=50mH that passes
components higher in frequency than 1kHz, rejects
components lower than 1kHz.
We need a high-pass filter.
To obtain a approximately
constant transfer function
In the pass-band, we choose
Qs 1 and select f 0 1kHz

since f 0
1
2 LC
we have C
1
0.507 F
2
2
( 2 ) f 0 L
2f 0 L
and R
314.1
Qs
111

* The Popular Sallen-Key Filters
112

* Higher-order Filters using Cascade of 2nd-order Filters
113
* Higher-order Filters using Cascade of 2nd-order Filters
114

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Chapter 5

Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis

* In most circuits, the transient response (i.e., the

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis

5.1 Sinusoidal Currents and Voltages

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.1 Sinusoidal Current and Voltage

5.1.1 Phase and Phase Angle

sin(z) cos(z - 90)

and thus we can say that the phase angle of v x (t) is - 60

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.1 Sinusoidal Current and Voltage

The average powe per period is :

Sim ilarly,if we define the rm s value of the periodic current as :

i 2 t dt , we have Pavg I rms R

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.1 Sinusoidal Current and Voltage

5.1.3 RMS Value of a Sinusoid

Consider a sinusoidal voltage given by :

0.7071Vm Note : residential power : 110Vrms (Vm 155.5V),60 Hz

Sim ilarly, I rms

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.1 Sinusoidal Current and Voltage

Given : a v(t) 100cos(100t) V

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis

For a sinusoidal voltage of the form v1 t V1 cos t 1

If the sinusoid is of the form v 2 t V2 sin t 2

we can convert it to v 2 t V2 cos t 2 90, therefore

Similarly, for i1 t I 1 cos t 1 and i2 t I 2 sin t 2

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.2 Phasors

complex exponential e j cos j sin

In circuit application, Ae j( t ) is sim plified to the form Ae j

A cos( t ) is presented as Re(Ae j ) or sim ply its phasor form

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.2 Phasors

complex exponential e j cos j sin

Consider the sinusoidal voltage as shown :

It' s just the real part of a rotating vector :

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.2 Phasors

v(t) 10 cos( t) 5 sin( t 60 ) 5 cos( t 90 )

In Euler' s Identity (or in polar form ) :

Consider the com plex num ber :

14.54 cos t 9.90

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.2 Phasors

vt 10 cos t 5 sin t 60 5 cos t 90

vt 14.54 cos t 9.90

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.2 Phasors

Suppose that v1 t 20 cos t 45

Find v s (t) v1 (t) v 2 (t)

v s t 29.97 cos t 39.7

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.2 Phasors

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.2 Phasors

Consider the voltages :

v1 t 3 cos t 40 and v 2 t 4 cos t 20

They can be represented as : V1 340 and V2 4 20

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.3 Complex

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.3 Complex Impedances

Consider a current i L t I m sin t flow through an inductor :

Note : the current lags the voltage by 90

Rewrite voltage as : V L L90 I m ( 90 ) j L I L

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.3 Complex Impedances

Consider a voltage v C (t) Vm cos( t ) across a capacitor

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.3 Complex Impedances

* ELI the ICE man.

Definethe impedance of resistance as Z R R

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.3 Complex Impedances

5. Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis 5.3 Complex Impedances