Circuit and Analog Electronics-CH7

Circuits and Analog Electronics
Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits
7.1 Operational Amplifiers

7.2 Op Amp Circuits
7.3 Active Filter
7.4 Op Amp Positive Feedback
References: Floyd-Ch6; Gao-Ch7, 9;

Key Words:
Op Amp Model
Ideal Op Amp
Op Amp transfer characteristic
Feedback
Virtual short

7.1 Operational Amplifiers (Op Amp )
Symbol
Non-inverting input
Inverting input
Positive voltage supply
Output
Negative voltage supply
At a minimum, op amps have 3 terminals: 2 input and 1 output.

An op amp also requires dc power to operate. Often, the op
amp requires both positive and negative voltage supplies (V+
and V-).

Symbol
One of the input terminals (1) is called an inverting input

terminal denoted by -
The other input terminal (2) is called a non-inverting input
terminal denoted by +

The Op Amp Model
v+
Non-inverting input
Inverting input
v-
+
Rin
-
Ro
+
A(v+ -v- )
The op amp is designed to sense the difference between the voltage

signals applied to the two input terminals and then multiply it by a
gain factor A such that the voltage at the output terminal is A(v+-v-).
The voltage gain A is very large (practically infinite). The gain A is
often referred to as the differential gain or open-loop gain.
The input resistance Rin is very large (practically infinite). The output
resistance Ro is very small (practically zero).
vo

Ideal Op Amp
Circuit model (ideal)
We can model an ideal amplifier as a voltage-controlled voltage

source (VCVS)
The input resistance is infinite. Ri i 0, i 0
The output resistance is zero.
RO 0 vO A(v v )
The gain A is infinite.

Non-inverting input
Inverting input
v+
+
Rin
v-
Ro
+
-
vo
A(v+ -v- )
For A741, A = 100dB=105 if vo=10VRin = 2 106

10
0.1mV
5
10
v v 0.1103
i
0.05nA
6
Ri
2 10
Then v v

Op Amp transfer characteristic curve
saturation
active region
vo A vi A ( v v )

Op Amp transfer characteristic curve
So far, we have been looking at
the amplification that can be
achieved for relatively small
(amplitude) signals.
For a fixed gain, as we increase
the input signal amplitude, there is
a limit to how large the output
signal can be. The output saturates
as it approaches the positive and
negative power supply voltages.
In other words, there is limited
range across which the gain is
linear.
v v
v v
v o V
v o V

Review
Ideal op amp characteristics:
Does not draw input current so that the input impedance
is infinite (i.e., i1=0 and i2=0)
The output terminal can supply an arbitrary amount of
current (ideal VCVS) and the output impedance is zero
The op amp only responds to the voltage difference
between the signals at the two input terminals and ignores
any voltages common to both inputs. In other words, an
ideal op amp has infinite common-mode rejection.
A is or can be treated as being infinite.


R2
vo A( v v ) A( vIN vo
)
R1 R2
AvIN
vo
AR2
1
R1 R2
What happens when A is
very large?

Closed-loop gain
Af=vo/vin
AvIN
vo
AR2
1
R1 R2
vIN
R1 R2
A f v IN
R2
Gain
Suppose
A=106,
R1=9R, R2=R,
vo v IN 10
R1
A f (1 )
R2
Closed-loop gain: determined by resistor ratio

insensitive to A, temperature

Negative feedback
Why did this happen?

Negative feedback
Observe, under negative feedback,

R1 R2
vIN
vo R1
v v
0
A
A
v v
i 0, i 0
analysis method under negative feedback!

Hence, we say there is a virtual short between the two terminals
(+ and -) .

Negative feedback
v v
i 0, i 0

Negative feedback
v v
i 0, i 0
vo vIN
R1 R2 A v
f IN
R2
R1
A f (1 )
R2
When R1=0, R2=,
vo vIN
Buffer: voltage gain = 1
Voltage Follower

Negative feedback
v v
i 0, i 0
R1
A f (1 )
R2
vi v vi
i1
R1
R1
vo v vo
i2
R2
R2
i i1 i2 0
vo
R2
Af
vi
R1

Negative feedback
vo
R1
A f (1 )
vi
R2
Af
vo
R
2
vi
R1
We can adjust the closed-loop gain by changing the ratio of R2

and R1.
The closed-loop gain is (ideally) independent of op amp openloop gain A (if A is large enough) and we can make it arbitrarily
large or small and with the desired accuracy depending on the
accuracy of the resistors.

Negative feedback
The terminal 1 is a virtual ground
since terminal 2 is grounded.
Inverting configuration,
This is a classic example of what negative feedback does. It
takes an amplifier with very large gain and through negative
feedback, obtain a gain that is smaller, stable, and predictable. In
effect, we have traded gain for accuracy. This kind of trade off is
common in electronic circuit design as we will see more later.

Negative feedback
vi
vi
Rin
R1
i1 vi / R1
Input Resistance:
Assuming an ideal op amp (open-loop gain A = infinity), in the
closed-loop inverting configuration, the input resistance is R1.

Negative feedback
Output Resistance:
Roa is usually small and
so Rout is negligible when
A is large
vt
R2 R1
R1
vt
R1 R2
AR1
vt (1
)
vt ( Av1 )
R1 R2
i2
Roa
Roa
v
Roa
R t
i2 1 A R1
R1 R2
i1
Rout R (R1 R2 )
v1
Rout
Roa
1 A
R1
R1 R2

Negative feedback
vo
R2
Af
vi
R1
Rin
vi
R1
i1
Ro 0
We can model the closed-loop

inverting amplifier (with A =
infinite) with the following
equivalent circuit using a
voltage-controlled voltage
source

Homework
1) Design a circuit to
2) Find the vo=?
Af
Vo
0.5
Vi

Review: Two fundamental Op Amp
Structure
Af
Input voltage
( ) terminal
Feedback
( ) terminal
Inverting
Amp
Non
inverting
Amp
7.2 Op Amp Circuits
Key Words:
Subtracting Amplifiers
Summing Amplifiers
Intergrator
Differentiator
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Consider this circuit:
v v
i1 i2 0
v v1
R2
v
R2 R1
v2 v
R1
Subtraction!
vO v iR2
v
v2 v
R2
R1
R2
R
v2 2
v 1
R1
R1
R
2 v1 v2
R1
Let R1 R2 ,
vO (v1 v2 )
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

v v
i1 i2 0
Another way of solving use superposition
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

R2
vo2 v 2
R1
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

R1 + R2
vo1 = v+
R1
R2 R1 + R2
= v1
R1 + R2 R1
R2
= v1
R1
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

vo1 = v+
R
vo2 2 v 2
R1
vo vo1 vo 2
R2
( v1 v2 )
R1
R1 + R2
R1
= v1
R2 R1 + R2
R1 + R2 R1
= v1
R2
R1
Still subtracts!
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

vo1
vO (
Rf 2
R3
Rf 2 (
Rf1
vO1
v S1
R1
vO1
Rf1
R1
vO1
Rf 1
R1R3
Let R f 1 R1 , vO R f 2 (
v S1
Rf 2
R5
vS1
vS 2 )
1
vS 2 )
R5
v S1 1
vS 2 )
R3 R5
Let R f 2 R3 R5 , vO (vS1 vS 2 )
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Summing Amplifiers
vo k1vi1 k 2 vi 2 k n vin
For node N
vS 3 vS 2 vS 1
v
o
R3 R2 R1
Rf
vo (
Let
Rf
R1
v S1
Rf
R2
vS 2
R1 R2 R3
vo
Rf
R1
(vS1 vS 2 vS 3 )
R f R1
vo (vS1 vS 2 vS 3 )
Rf
R3
vS 3 )
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Weighted Summer
We can also build a summer:
i1
v
v1
v
, i2 2 , , in n
R1
R2
Rn
i i1 i2 in
vo 0 iR f
vo (
Rf
R1
v1
Rf
R2
v2
Rf
Rn
vn )
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Example 1 Design a summer which has an output voltage given
by vO=1.5vs1-5vs2+0.1vs3
Solution 1:
R4
R3
R2
we have
Rf1
R1
vO1 (
1.5 ,
Rf1
R1
Rf1
R3
v S1
Rf1
R3
vS 3 )
0.1
Let R1 2K , R f 1 3K R3 30 K
R5 R1 // R3 // R f 1 2 // 30 // 3 1.15
Rf 2
Rf 2
vO
vO1
vS 2
R2
R4
Rf 2
Rf 2
1
R2
R4
Let R2 2K R f 2 10 K R4 10 K
R6 R2 // R4 // R f 2 2 // 10 // 10 1.43
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Example 1 Design an summer which has an output voltage given
by vO=1.5vs1-5vs2+0.1vs3
Solution 2:
Because
R2 // R f R4 // R1 // R3
vO
Rf
R1
Rf
1.5 ,
R1
Let R2 2K
v S1
Rf
R2
Rf
R2
vS 2
5,
R f 10K R3 100K R1
R3
R3
vS 3
0.1
10 2
6.7K
3
2 // 10 100 // 6.7 // R4
R4
Rf
Rf
20 670
2.27K
12 670 20 106.7
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Lets build an integrator
vO k vI dt
Lets start with the following insight:
vI
vO vC
1
i dt
But we need to somehow convert voltage vI to current.
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

First try use resistor
When is v small compared to vR?

O
i C
dvo
dt
vI vR vO iR vO RC
When vR >>vO ,
dvO
vO
dt
larger the RC,

smaller the v
O
for good integrator

RC >> 1
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Theres a better way
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Theres a better way
v
i I
R
B
u
t
,
v
O
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Integrator
vR vI
1 t
vC vC (0) iC ( )d
C 0
vI 0
R
1 t
vO (t )
vI ( )d vC (0)
0
RC
iC
How about in the frequency domain?

Vo ( j )
1 jC
1
Vi ( j )
R
jCR
Vo ( j )
1
Vi ( j ) CR
Vo ( j )
1 jC
1
Vi ( j )
R
jCR
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Integrator
vR vI
1 t
vC vC (0) iC ( )d
C 0
vI 0
iC
R
1 t
vO (t )
vI ( )d vC (0)
0
RC
Vo ( j )
1 jC
1
V ( j )
R
jCR
i
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Integrator
v S Vm sin t
vO
Vm
Vm
1
V
sin
tdt
cos
sin(90 t )
m
RC
RC
RC
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Now, lets build a differentiator
Lets start with the following insights:
But we need to somehow convert current to voltage.
7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Differentiator
vo=-iR
7.3 Active Filter
Key Words:
Basic Filter Responses
Low-Pass Filter
High-Pass Filter
Band-Pass Filter
Band-Stop Filter
7.3 Active Filter

.V (t)
Filter
Vi(t)
S j
voltage gain
Transition region
stopband region
cutoff frequency
vO ( s )
vi ( s )
Vo ( j )
A( j )
A( j ) ( j )
Vi ( j )
Low-Pass Filter
bandwidth
A( s )
7.3 Active Filter
7.3 Active Filter

Low-Pass Filter
1 j
VO
Vi
1 / j c
1
2
1
R
1 j
j c
0

0
1
(O
)
RC
tg 1

45
0
0
7.3 Active Filter

High-Pass Filter
VO
Vi
1
j c
2
0
1
1 j
tg 1
0
45
0
1
jRc
1
1 j
7.3 Active Filter

Advantages of Filter
| A |m ax 1
RL
1
c
V
(
R
//
)
i
L
R
1 jcRL
j c
L
1
RL
(R
// RL ) Vi R 1 jc
R
j c
1 jcRL
R
RL
R Rj c
( R RL )(1 L
)
RL R
RL
RL /( R RL )
Av
1 j cR'L 1 j
O '
where AV RL ( R RL )
O '
1
RL ' C
7.3 Active Filter

Low-Pass Filter
-20dB/decade
A( j )
Vi ( j )
VO ( j )
1
1
j c
Vi ( j )
(R
)Vi ( j ) 1 j cR 1 j
j c
O
7.3 Active Filter

Low-Pass Filter
AV
Rf
R1
-20dB/decade
f0
Vi
Rf
Rf
j c
V0 V 1
R1
R1 R 1
j c
1
2RC
1
A( j )
Rf
VO ( j )
AVF
R1
Vi ( j ) 1 j cR 1 j
First-order (one-pole) Filter
7.3 Active Filter

Low-Pass Filter
AV
Rf
R1
-20dB/decade
-40dB/decade
V0 V 1 f
R1
V+ =
f0
A( j )
1
2RC
VO ( j )
1
AVF
Vi ( j )
1 3 jRC ( jRC ) 2
Second-order (two-pole) Filter
7.3 Active Filter

Low-Pass Filter
Voltage-controlled voltage source
(VCVS) filter
V V
R3
R3 R f
For simplicity, R1 R2 R C1 C 2 C
A=
Vo
Vi
Af
1 + (3 - A f ) jRC + ( jRC) 2
Af
2
1
1- ( ) + j
0
Q 0
1
3 Af
Af 1
Rf
R3
7.3 Active Filter

Low-Pass Filter
R f R3
1 V A f
V o VV V
RR33 R f
Voltage-controlled voltage source

(VCVS) filter
For simplicity, R1 R2 R C1 C2 C
Rf
V o V 1
R3
V A f
Using superposition:
V+(1) =
V+( 2)
Vo
1
jwc
1
1
1
+ R //(R +
) 2R +
jwc
jwc
jwc
1
Vi
1
jwc
=
1
1
2
jwc
R+
//(R +
)
+R
jwc
jwc jwc
V o V 1 V 2 A f
7.3 Active Filter

High-Pass Filter
Transfer functions:
Circuit: RC
Frequency domain
AL
1
1 j RC
SRC
1
SRC
1
SRC
AH
7.3 Active Filter

Band-Pass Filter
Vi
High-Pass
Low-Pass
Vo
A
A
AAff
A
AAf f
A
Aff
A
Lower-frequency
Upper-frequency
7.3 Active Filter

Band-Stop Filter
Low-Pass
Vi
Vo
High-Pass
A
A
Af f 1
A
A
Aff
A
AA
f f
7.3 Active Filter

Example 2 For the circuit shown, show that what it is filter?
vO
v
i
R f // Z C R1
Vo
R f // Z C
R1
Vi
(a)
Rf
Rf
R1
j c
1
Rf
j c
1
1
AVF
R1 1 jR f c
1 j
The Inverting First-order Low-Pass Filter.
7.3 Active Filter

vo
vi
Rf
R1 Z C
Rf
Vi
Vo
1
R1 Z C
A
Rf
1
Vi
Vi
R1
j c
R
1
1
f
AVF
R1 1 1 / jR1C
1 j o
(b)
The Inverting First-order High-Pass Filter.
7.3 Active Filter

(c)
The Non-Inverting Band-Stop Filter(Second-order).
7.3 Active Filter

The Inverting Band-Pass Filter.

(Second-order)
The Inverting High-Pass Filter.

(Second-order)
Key Words:
Positive Feedback
The Comparator
Oscillator
Positive Feedback
Whats the difference?
Positive feedback drives op amp

into saturation: VoutVsaturation
Positive Feedback
vout A(v v ) Av
vout vIN
A(
R1 vIN )
R1 R2
R1
R1 R2
vout AvIN
AR1
1 R R
1
2
R2
R2
R1 R2
Av IN
vIN
AR1
R1
R1 R2
The Comparator
The op amp is often used as a comparator.
The output voltage exhibits two stable states. The output
state depends on the relative value of one input voltage
compared to the other input voltage.
Threshold voltages
vi VR ,
VO VO L
vi VR ,
VO VO H
vi ( VR ) VTH
The Comparator
The Comparator
The Comparator
R1
vi
vO
+
vO
R1
VOH
vo
vO
VOL
vo
t
R1
vO
vO
vL
v
vLL
C
R
RL
The Comparator
vi 0 ,
vO (VZ VD )
vi 0 ,
vO VZ V D
( VO VZ )
The Comparator
Transmission characteristics
The Comparator with Positive Feedback

Positive feedback is often used with comparator circuits. The
feedback is applied from the output to the non-inverting input
of the op amp.
The Comparator with Positive Feedback
The Comparator (Schmidt trigger)

The input has to change sufficiently to
trigger a change. e.g.( -7.5V 7.5V)
Only at vi = 7.5V , v0 is switched from
15V to -15V.
hysteresis

When Vi < VTH2, Vo+
V+1 = VTH 2 =
RF
(VR VO+ ) + VO+
R2 + RF
1
=
( RFVR + R2Vo+ )
R2 + R F
When Vi > VTH1, VoVTH2
VTH1
V+ 2 = VTH 1 =
=
RF
(V VO ) + VO
R2 + RF R
1
( R V + R2VO )
R2 + R F F R
VH VTH 1 VTH 2
R2
(VO V O )
R2 RF

Why is hysteresis useful?
e.g., analog to digital

Without hysteresis

Oscillator can create a clock

Theres a better way----triangular-wave generator
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator (RC Oscillator )

Op Amp Circuits
Positive Feedback
Lead-lag network
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator
1
R
c
1
R
c
Resonant frequency?
1
j c
1
1
1
1
1
1
VO R
R //
R
3 j ( cR
)
3
VO
j c
j c
j c
cR
max
1
1
R //
j c
1
The phase shift through the network is 0 for cR
cR
Vf
FV
Vf
R //
2 f o Rc
fo
f 0
VO
1
2 Rc
f
f )
3 j( o
fo
f
1
2 f o Rc
Vo
1
f
f
32 ( o ) 2
fo
f
1 f
f
o)
3 fo
f
f arctg (

a f 2 n
AVF
VO
V R1
VO
R1 R2
R2
R1
R1
R1
VO
R1 R2
Loop gain of
1 causes a sustained constant
output | AVF F | 1
1
1
When f o
FV
2RC
3
AVF
1
R2
3
R1
1
3
F
R2 2R1

All practical methods to achieve
stability for feedback oscillators
require the gain to be selfadjusting. This requirement is a
form of automatic gain control.
| AVF F | 1
AVF
VO
V R1
R
1 2
R1
R2
3
R1
FV
1
3
Negative temperature
coefficient
The LC Oscillator
Admittance y
1
R
L
2
j
[
]
2
2
2
Z R ( L)
R ( L)
1
f0
ZO
2 LC
1 R (0 L)
y0
R
2
0 L
R
j L
j
c
j
c
Impedance Z
(1 j c ) ( R j L) R j ( L 1 )
c
L
ZO
RC
1
L
f
f
1 j
( o ) 1 jQ( o )
fo f
LC R o
1
R2 (
L
R2 )
L
L
C
Q
R
RC
C
--Quality Factor
| Ic || IL | | I |
( R jL)
ZO
f
f
1 Q 2 ( o )2
fo f
f
f
arctgQ( o )
fo f
The LC Oscillator
Frequency response curve
ZO
f
f
1 Q 2 ( o )2
fo f
f
f
arctgQ( o )
fo f
larger
smaller
Resistors Circuit
larger
Inductance Circuit
smaller
1
f
o2 )
fo f
f f fo
1
f
1 Q 2 ( o2 ) 2
fo f
Q(
f f0
2
fo
Capacitance Circuit
The RC(Phase-Shift) Oscillator
The LC Oscillator
The LC Oscillator
+Vcc
+Vcc
Vo
Vo
Vi
i
V
Vo
i
V

Circuit and Analog Electronics-CH7

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Circuits and Analog Electronics

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

7.1 Operational Amplifiers

7.4 Op Amp Positive Feedback

References: Floyd-Ch6; Gao-Ch7, 9;

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Positive voltage supply

Negative voltage supply

At a minimum, op amps have 3 terminals: 2 input and 1 output.

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

One of the input terminals (1) is called an inverting input

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

The op amp is designed to sense the difference between the voltage

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Circuit model (ideal)

We can model an ideal amplifier as a voltage-controlled voltage

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

For A741, A = 100dB=105 if vo=10VRin = 2 106

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Closed-loop gain: determined by resistor ratio

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Why did this happen?

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Observe, under negative feedback,

analysis method under negative feedback!

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

We can adjust the closed-loop gain by changing the ratio of R2

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

We can model the closed-loop

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Another way of solving use superposition

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits

Ch7 Operational Amplifiers and Op Amp Circuits

7.2 Op Amp Circuits