CHAPTER 4

TISSUES AND MEMBRANES

4 MAIN GROUPSOF TISSUES

EPITHELIAL TISSUES

CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Has matrix structural network of solution of

non-living intercellular material

MUSCLE TISSUES

Found on surfaces as either coverings or linings.

Specialized for contraction

NERVE TISSUES

Consist of nerve cells called neurons

Neurons are capable of generating
transmitting electrochemical impulses
Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves.

and

EPITHELIAL TISSUE

EPITHELIAL TISSUES
1.) Simple squamous epithelium
Very thin and very smooth
Alveoli, capillaries

 2.)

Stratified squamous epithelium

Consists of many layers of mostly flat cells
Barrier to microorganisms
Epidermis, oral cavity, esophagus, vagina

 3.)

Transitional epithelium
The surface cells change shape from round to
squamous.
Capabale of stretching.
Urinary bladder

 4.)

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Example of glandular epithelium (secretion):

Thyroid gland, salivary gland, kidney tubules

 5.)

Simple columnar epithelium

Tall and are specialized for secretion and
absorption.
Stomach, small intestine

 6.)

Ciliated Epithelium
Columnar cells with cilia.
Nasal cavities, larynx, trachea, large bronchial
tubes, lining of fallopian tubes.

 7.)

Glands
Cells
or organs
that secrete
something.
UNICELLULAR goblet cells of
digestive and respiratory tract;
secrete mucus
MULTICELLULAR
Exocrine glands with ducts
Endocrine glands - hormones

CONNECTIVE TISSUES
1.)

Blood
Matrix - plasma
Produced in the red bone marrow (hip bone and
vertebra).
Red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC),
platelets

 2.)

Areolar Connective Tissue

Fibroblasts; produce protein fibersCOLLAGEN (strong) and ELASTIN (elastic)

Found beneath the dermis of the skin.

 3.)

Adipose tissue

Cells of adipose tissue are called adipocytes.

Store fat; cushions organs.

 4.)

Fibrous connective tissue

Regular fibrous sites

Tendons connects muscle to bone
Ligaments connects bone to bone

Irregular fibrous sites

Dermis of the skin
Fasciae (membranes)

TENDON

LIGAMENT

FASCIA

 5.)

Elastic Connective Tissue

Elastin fibers; walls of large arteries and around

alveoli

 6.)

Bone

Matrix calcium salts.

Bone cells - osteocytes

Haversian system or osteons arrangements of

osteocytes, matrix, and blood vessels.
Functions of bones.

 7.)

Cartilage

Cartilage cells - chondrocytes

Joint surfaces of bones, tip of nose and
external ear, wall of trachea, discs between
vertebrae.

MUSCLE TISSUE
1.) Skeletal muscle
Striated or voluntary muscle.
Attached to bones.
Moves the skeleton and produces heat.

 2.)

Smooth muscle

visceral or involuntary muscle.

Stomach, small intestines, walls of arteries and
veins, iris of the eye.

 3.)

Cardiac muscle

Has interlocking folds intercalated discs.

As a whole is termed as MYOCARDIUM.

NERVE TISSUE

PARTS:
1.) Neuron (nerve cell)
Cell body, axon, dendrites
2.) Synapse transmits impulses one neuron to others
3.) Neurotransmitters transmit impulses across
synapses
4.) Neuroglia specialized cells in the central nervous
system (CNS) that form myelin sheaths.
5.) Schwann cells - specialized cells in the peripheral
nervous system (PNS) that form myelin sheaths
around neurons.

MEMBRANES
Sheets

of tissue that cover or lines

surfaces or that separate organs or parts
of organs from one another.

MAJOR

CATEGORIES:
1. EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES

EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
1.

SEROUS MEMBRANE
Sheets of simple squamous epithelium
that line some closed body cavities and
cover the organs in these cavities
They secrete serous fluid.
Examples: pleural membranes (parietal
and visceral)
Pericardium and epicardium
Peritoneum and mesentery

 2.

MUCOUS MEMBRANES
Line body tracts that have openings to the
environment respiratory, digestive, urinary,
and reproductive tracts.
Secrete mucus
Epithelium of a mucous membrane varies
with the different organs involved:
Mucosa
of esophagus and vagina
stratified squamous
Mucosa of trachea ciliated epithelium
Mucosa of stomach columnar epithelium

CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES

SUPERFICIAL

FASCIA between skin and

muscles
PERIOSTEUM covers each bone; anchors
tendons and ligaments
PERICHONDRIUM covers cartilage
SYNOVIAL lines joint cavities
DEEP FASCIA covers each skeletal muscle;
anchors tendons
MENINGES covers brain and spinal cord
FIBROUS PERICARDIUM forms a sac
around the heart

CHAPTER 5
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
SKIN
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES
SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE

SKIN
2

Major Layers:

1.) EPIDERMIS
2.) DERMIS

1.)

EPIDERMIS

made up of stratified squamous keratinizing

epithelial tissue.
Thickest on palms and soles.
With abundant keratinocytes.
No capillaries

LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS

1.)

Stratum Germinativum or stratum basale

base of the epidermis, the innermost layer in
which mitosis takes place.
Merkel cells or merkel discs receptors for
sense of touch
Defensins antimicrobial peptides synthesize by
living keratinocytes.

2.)

Stratum corneum
Outermost layer; consists of many layers of
dead cells; all that is left is their KERATIN
(prevents evaporation of body water and
prevents entry of water).
Barrier to pathogens and chemicals

LANGERHANS CELLS dendritic cells; phagocytize

foreign materials; stimulate an immune response by
lymphocytes.
MELANOCYTES produce melanin.

 2.)

DERMIS

Has fibroblasts which produce collagen and

elastic fibers.
Papillary layer the uneven junction of the
dermis with the epidermis; has abundant
capillaries to nourish the dermis and stratum
germinativum.

ACCESSORY SKIN STRUCTURES

1.)

Hair Follicles
Hair root base of the follicle
Hair shaft pushed toward the skin surface
Pilomotor or arrector pili muscle

 2.)

Nail Follicles

Nail root where mitosis occur

 3.)

Receptors
Detect changes in the skin
Free nerve endings - pain, heat, cold
Encapsulated nerve endings touch , pressure

4.)

Glands

Made of epithelial tissue

A.) SEBACEOUS Glands sebum
B.) CERUMINOUS Glands cerumen or earwax
C.) SWEAT Glands
1.) Apocrine glands
2.) Eccrine glands

5.)

Blood vessels

SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE
Superficial fascia
Made of areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue
Connects the dermis to the underlying muscles.
PARTS:
1.)AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Loose connective tissue
Contains collagen and elastin fibers; WBC
MAST CELLS histamine, leukotrienes bring
about inflammation
2.) ADIPOSE TISSUE
adipocytes

SKELETAL SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS:

Provides framework.
Protects the internal organs.
Contains and protects the red bone
marrow.
Provides storage site for excess
calcium.

TYPES OF BONE TISSUE:

1.) COMPACT BONE made of osteons or haversian
system.
2.) SPONGY BONE with visible holes or cavities
(contain the red bone marrow).

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES:
1.) LONG BONES hands, arms, legs, feet
Diaphysis shaft of the long bone; compact bone
Epiphysis ends; spongy bone
2.) SHORT BONES wrists, ankles
3.) FLAT BONES ribs, shoulders, hip bones, cranial
bones
4.) IRREGULAR BONES vertebrae, facial bones.

ARTICULAR CARTILAGE covers the joint surfaces of

bones.
PERIOSTEUM rest of the bone.

SKELETON 2 DIVISIONS
1.)

AXIAL SKELETON
Skull
Vertebral column
Rib cage
2.) APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Bones of arms
Bones of legs
Shoulder girdle
Pelvic girdle

SKULL
8

cranial bones & 14 facial bones

CRANIAL BONES:

Frontal bone
Parietal bone (2)
Temporal bone (2) external auditory
meatus
Occipital bone foramen magnum
Sphenoid bone sella turcica (pituitary
gland)
Ethmoid bone crista galli (anchors the
cranial meninges)

SUTURES

JOINTS

BETWEEN

CRANIAL BONES
Coronal

suture - between frontal and

parietal bones
Squamosal suture - between parietal and
temporal bones
Lambdoidal suture - between occipital
and parietal bones
Sagittal suture - between two parietal
bones

FACIAL BONES
Mandible lower jaw; movable; it forms a
condyloid joint with each temporal bone.
2.) Maxillae two upper jaw bones
3.) Nasal bones forms the bridge of the nose
4.) Lacrimal bones medial side of each orbit;
contains the lacrimal sac (passageway of tears)
5.) Zygomatic bones cheekbones
6.) Palatine bones posterior portion of hard
palate
7.) Vomer lower part of the nasal septum
1.)

sinuses air cavities located in

the maxillae, frontal, sphenoid, and
ethmoid bones.

Paranasal

Functions: - make the skull lighter

Provide resonance for the voice

sinuses air cavities in the

mastoid process of each temporal bone
and open in the middle ear.
3 Auditory Bones of the midlle ear:
Mastoid

Malleus
Incus`
Stapes

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
7 cervical vertebrae C1 to C7
12 thoracic vertebrae T1 to T12
5 Lumbar vertebrae L1 to L5
5 sacral (fused to one)
4-5 coccygeal vertebrae (fused to one)

RIB

CAGE

1.) 12 pairs of ribs

First 7 true ribs
3 pairs false ribs
2 pairs floating
2.) Sternum
Manubrium
Body
Xiphoid process

SHOULDER AND ARM

A. Shoulder Girdle
1.) Scapula (Shoulder blade)
2.) Clavicle

B.

ARM
1.) Humerus upper arm
2.) Ulna - forearm
3.) Radius - forearm
4.) Carpals (8) wrist
5.) Metacarpals (5) palm
6.) Phalanges

HIP AND LEG

PELVIC

GIRDLE
1.) Hip bones

Major parts:
Ilium
Ischium
Pubis
ACETABULUM socket for femur

2.) Femur
3.) Tibia
4.) Fibula
5.) Tarsals (7) ankle

Calcaneus heel bone

6.) Metatarsals (5)

7.) Phalanges

FRACTURE
A

bone fracture is a medical condition in

which there is a break in the continuity of
the bone. A bone fracture can be the
result of high force impact or stress, or
trivial injury as a result of certain medical
conditions that weaken the bones, such
as osteoporosis, bone cancer, or
osteogenesis imperfecta, where the
fracture is then properly termed a
pathologic fracture.

CLASSIFICATION
By

cause

Traumatic

fracture - This is a fracture due to

sustained trauma. e.g.- Fractures caused by a
fall, road traffic accident, fight etc.
Pathological fracture - A fracture through a
bone which has been made weak by some
underlying disease is called pathological fracture.
e.g.- a fracture through a bone weakened by
metastasis. Osteoporosis is the most common
cause of pathological fracture.

ORTHOPEDIC
All

fractures can be broadly described as:

Closed (simple) fractures: are those in
which the skin is intact
Open
(compound) fractures: involve
wounds that communicate with the fracture,
or where fracture hematoma is exposed,
and
may
thus
expose
bone
to
contamination. Open injuries carry a higher
risk of infection.

 Compression

fractures: usually occurs in the

vertebrae, for example when the front portion of
a vertebra in the spine collapses due to
osteoporosis (a medical condition which causes
bones to become brittle and susceptible to
fracture, with or without trauma).
Other types of fracture are:
Complete fracture: A fracture in which bone
fragments separate completely.
Incomplete fracture: A fracture in which the bone
fragments are still partially joined. In such cases,
there is a crack in the osseous tissue that does
not completely traverse the width of the bone.

 Linear

fracture: A fracture that is parallel to the

bone's long axis.
Transverse fracture: A fracture that is at a right
angle to the bone's long axis.
Oblique fracture: A fracture that is diagonal to a
bone's long axis.
Spiral fracture: A fracture where at least one part
of the bone has been twisted.
Comminuted fracture: A fracture in which the
bone has broken into a number of pieces.
Impacted fracture: A fracture caused when bone
fragments are driven into each other.

CHAPTER 7 MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Muscle

Structure:
Muscle cells a.k.a muscle fibers
Specialized for contraction
Anchored firmly to bones by tendons
Aponeurosis flat tendon
Origin stationary attachment of the
muscle
Insertion more movable attachment

MUSCLE ARRANGEMENT
1.)

ANTAGONISTIC Muscles

Muscles that have opposing or opposite

functions.
Example: triceps brachii extends the forearm;
biceps brachii flexes the forearm

Pectoralis major flexes and adducts the

humerus; latissimus dorsi extends and
adducts the humerus.
Iliopsoas flexes the femur; gluteus maximus
extends the femur
Gastrocnemius plantar flexes the foot
Tibialis anterior dorsiflexes the foot

SYNERGISTIC MUSCLES
Those

with the same function or those

that work together to perform a particular
function.
Example:
biceps
brachii
and
brachioradialis flexes the forearm
Gastrocnemius and soleus plantar
flexes the foot

ROLE OF THE BRAIN

lobes (motor areas) where nerve

impulses for movement come.
Cerebellum where coordination takes
place.
Parietal lobes impulses for muscle sense
are integrated.
Frontal

Muscle sense or proprioception brains ability

to know where our muscles are and what they
are doing, without our having to consciously
look at them.

ACTIONS OF MUSCLES
to decrease the angle of a joint
EXTENSION to increase the angle of a joint
ADDUCTION to move closer to the midline
ABDUCTION to move away from the midline
PRONATION to turn the palm down
SUPINATION to turn the palm up
DORSIFLEXION to elevate the foot
PLANTAR FLEXION to lower the foot
ROTATION to move a bone around its
longitudinal axis
FLEXION

MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND NECK

raises the eyebrows, wrinkles the
skin of forehead
ORBICULARIS OCULI closes the eye
ORBICULARIS ORIS puckers the lips
MASSETER closes the jaw
BUCCINATOR pulls the corner of the mouth
laterally
STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID flex head and
neck
SEMISPINALIS CAPITIS extend head and
neck
SPLENIUS CAPITIS extend head
FRONTALIS

MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK

TRAPEZIUS

- raises, lowers, and adducts the

shoulders
EXTERNAL INTERCOSTALS pulls ribs up and out
(inhalation)
INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS pulls ribs down and
in (forced exhalation)
DIAPHRAGM flattens down to enlarge chest
cavity for inhalation
RECTUS ABDOMINIS flexes vertebral column,
compresses the abdomen
EXTERNAL OBLIQUE rotates and flexes vertebral
column, compresses abdomen
SACROSPINALIS group extends vertebral column

MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND ARM

abducts the humerus
PECTORALIS MAJOR flexes and adducts the
humerus
LATISSIMUS DORSI extends and adducts the
humerus
TERES MAJOR extends and adducts the
humerus
TRICEPS BRACHII extends the forearm
BICEPS BRACHII flexes the forearm
BRACHIORADIALIS flexes the forearm
DELTOID

MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND LEG

ILIOPSOAS flexes femur
GLUTEUS MAXIMUS extends femur
GLUTEUS MEDIUS abducts the femur
QUADRICEPS group flexes femur and extends lower
leg

RECTUS FEMORIS
VASTUS LATERALIS
VASTUS MEDIALIS
VASTUS INTERMEDIUS

HAMSTRING GROUP extends femur and flexes lower

leg
BICEPS FEMORIS
SEMIMEMRANOSUS
SEMITENDINOSUS

GROUP adducts femur

SARTORIUS flexes femur and lower leg
GASTROCNEMIUS plantar flexes foot
SOLEUS plantar flexes foot
TIBIALIS ANTERIOR dorsiflexes foot
ADDUCTOR

MUSCLES OF THE PELVIC FLOOR

ANI supports pelvic organs;
constricts anus, urethra, and vagina
COCCYGEUS supports pelvic organs
ISCHIOCAVERNOSUS erection of clitoris in
female, and penis in male
BULBOSPONGIOSUS
assist urination;
erection in female, and erection and ejaculation
in male
TRANSVERSE PERINEUS assists urination
in female, and urination and ejaculation in male
EXTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTER closes anus
LEVATOR