Biological Foundations of

Psychology

Genetic Basis of Psychology

Heredity Involves Passing along Genes through
Reproduction
Genotypic Variation Is Created by Sexual
Reproduction
Genes Affect Behavior
Social and Environmental Contexts Influence
Genetic Expression
Gene Expression Can Be Modified

Genetics
Genetics typically used to describe how characteristics
are passed along through inheritance
Also refers to processes that are involved in turning
genes on and off
Chromosomes cell structures made up of genes
Humans usually have 23 pairs
Half of each pair comes from each parent
Genes segment of DNA involved in producing proteins
that carry out specific tasks

Heredity
Heredity involves passing genes along through reproduction
Dominant and recessive patterns of inheritance (Mendel)

Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype: an organisms genetic
makeup; never changes
Phenotype: an organisms observable
physical characteristics; always changing
Genetics (nature) and environment
(nurture) both influence phenotype

Nervous System
How does the nervous system operate?
Neurons Are Specialized for Communication
Action Potentials Cause Neuronal Communication
Changes in Electrical Potential Lead to Action
Action Potentials Spread along the Axon
Neurotransmitters Bind to Receptors across the Synapse

Neurons

Neurons

Neurons
Individual cells that receive, integrate, and send information
in the nervous system
Information collection occurs at the dendrites

Information integration occurs at the cell body

Information transmission occurs at the axons and synapses

Types of Neurons
Sensory (Afferent) Neurons detect information
from world and direct that information to the brain
(signal from body to brain)
Motor (Efferent) Neurons direct muscles to
contract or relax (signal from brain to body)
Interneurons communicate within local or shortdistance circuits
Vastly outnumber motor and sensory neurons
Facilitate within-CNS transmission of information

Types of Neurons

Myelin & Node of Ranvier

Myelin: A fatty substance produced by glia cells that acts as
an insulator
Speeds the transmission of signals along the axon
Speeds up neural transmission by causing action potentials
to jump across the nodes of ranvier (called saltatory
conduction)
Saltatory conduction produces faster neural speed and
thereby increases how quickly effects at the synapse can
occur
A node of ranvier is the space between two myelin sheaths
on an axon where depolarization and action potentials occur

Myelin & Node of Ranvier

Glia
Different varieties support
different functions
Structural support and
insulation for neurons
Provide nutrients, remove
waste, and repair damaged
neurons.
Involved in neurogenesis
(creation of new neurons)
Support the blood-brain
barrier
Outnumber neurons 10:1 in CNS

Action Potentials
A brief change in a neurons
electrical charge. A nerve impulse
flowing down the axon
All or none law. Either the neuron
fires or it does not
The strength of a stimulus is
represented by the rate of firing
Neurons cannot fire continuously,
they need time to close the channels
in the cell membrane and reset their
resting potential
This is called the refractory period
(usually 1 to 2 milliseconds)

Action Potentials

Action Potentials
Lead to communication between neurons
Neurons with thicker axons convey information at a greater
speed than thinner axons
Axons encased in myelin sheaths transmit information
more rapidly than unmyelinated axons
Neural impulses can move faster than 100 meters per
seconds (more than 200 mph)

Action Potentials

Changes in Electrical Potential

When neurotransmitters and receptor molecules combine (at the
dendrites), reactions in the cell membrane cause postsynaptic
potentials (PSPs).
Not all or none like action potentials. Graded - they increase or decrease
the probability of cell firing

If the voltage becomes more positive, the cell comes closer to the
threshold for firing (depolarization)
If the voltage becomes more negative, the cell moves farther away from
the threshold for firing (hyperpolarization).
Excitatory PSPs an electrical potential that increases the likelihood that
the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential or depolarize
Inhibitory PSPs an electrical potential that decreases the likelihood that
the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential or hyperpolarize

Changes in Electical Potential

Neurons may have as many as
15,000 synapses receiving
signals.
A neuron must integrate all of the
information before firing or not
If enough excitatory PSPs occur
in a neuron, the cell will reach the
threshold to fire an action
potential.
If enough inhibitory PSPs occur,
they will cancel the effects of the
excitatory PSPs and the neuron
will not firing.

Cell Membrane
A neuron at rest has a stable, negative charge of -70 millivolts. This
represents a resting electrical potential, like a battery

Cell Membrane
The ratio of negative to positive ions is greater inside the
neuron than outside the neuron
Thus, the electrical charge inside the neuron is slightly
more negative than that outside the neuron
Sufficient depolarization results in channels opening in
the cell membrane, allowing positive ions to rush into the
cell. For this instant, the neurons charge becomes less
negative and creates an action potential

Cell Membrane

Neural Communication

Synapses
Junction where information is
transmitted from one neuron to another

Works through neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are stored in small
sacs called synaptic vesicles
Neurotransmitters must pass through
the syanptic cleft, which is a gap
between two neurons

The neuron sending the signal is the

presynaptic neuron and the neuron
receiving the signal is the postsynaptic
neuron.

Synaptic Transmission
1. Synthesis of neurotransmitters
2. Storage of neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicles

3. Release of neurotransmitters in synaptic cleft

4. Binding of neurotransmitters at receptor sites on postsynaptic
neuron
5. Inactivation or removal of neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft
by enzymatic activity or drifting away from postsynaptic neuron
6. Reuptake of neurotransmitters sponged up by the presynaptic
neuron

Synaptic Transmission

Neurotransmitters (NTs)
Chemicals that transmit information from
one neuron to another neuron.
Play a role in everything we do from
breathing, muscle movement, emotions,
thoughts, and mental health.

Deliver their message by binding to

specific receptor sites on the
postsynaptic neuron.
Work like a lock and key.

Types of NTs
Acetylcholine (ACh) contributes to attention, arousal, and memory
processes
Only neurotransmitter between motor neurons and voluntary muscles.
Thus, every movement you make is dependent upon ACh
Inadequate ACh has been related to Alzheimers Disease
Agonist a chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter
Nicotine is an ACh agonist, fooling your brain, and
stimulating ACh receptors, causing PSPs
Antagonist a chemical that opposes the action of a
neurotransmitter
The poison, curare, is an ACh antagonist and blocks the ACh
receptors, causing paralysis

Types of NTs
Dopamine (DA) used by neurons that control voluntary movement

Low levels of DA shown in people with Parkinsons Disease

Overactivity of DA has been associated with schizophrenia
Norepinephrine (NE) related to arousal
Depression associated with low levels of NE
Serotonin related to the regulation of sleep (dreaming) and emotion

Types of NTs
GABA an amino acid that seems to produce only inhibitory PSPs
(hyperpolarization)
Related to the regulation of anxiety. Lower levels of GABA may allow
heightened excitement and anxiety
Endorphins internally produced chemicals that resemble opiates
Related to the modulation of pain and pleasure
Serve as neurotransmitters at some synapses, but seem to function
primarily as neuromodulators chemicals that increase or decrease
the activity of specific neurotransmitters

NTs

NTs
Neurotransmitter

Disorder Associated
with Malfunctioning

Acetycholine

Alzheimers disease

Norepinephrine

Depression

Serotonin

Depression

Dopamine
GABA
Glutamate

Parkinsons disease;
schizophrenia
Severe anxiety;
Huntingtons disease;
epilepsy
Neuron loss after
stroke

Neural Communication Systems

Central Nervous System (CNS) brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) somatic and autonomic nervous
systems
Together the CNS and PNS make up the NERVOUS SYSTEM
Endocrine System communicates through hormones
The three systems are coordinated to operate together and regulate all
psychological activity

Structure of Nervous System

PNS
Connects CNS to the rest of the body through two
subdivisions:
Somatic NS acts on skeletal muscle (muscles
attached to bone)
Sensory (afferent) neurons info to CNS
Motor (efferent) neurons info from CNS
Autonomic NS acts on visceral muscle (e.g. heart,
arteries, gastrointestinal tract) and glands (e.g., salivary,
sweat)
Sympathetic NS activating system (fight or flight)
Parasympathetic NS deactivating system (rest
and digest)

PNS
Sympathetic
activating
system (fight
or flight)

Parasympathetic
deactivating
system (rest and
digest)

Endocrine System
Influences thoughts, behaviors, and actions
Uses hormones, not electrochemical signals
Hormones chemicals released by endocrine glands
Work through bloodstream to influence target tissue
Can create effects in seconds or hours
Can last a long time and influence multiple targets

Endocrine System

Hypothalamus
Critical integrating structure between CNS and endocrine
system
Controls pituitary gland through secretion of a releasing
factor
Pituitary gland controls release of hormones for rest of
endocrine glands
Releasing factor causes pituitary to release specific
hormone to endocrine sites around body
These sites then release hormones to target tissue

Hypothalamus