General Chemistry Course

Course 2

The Periodic Table

Organization of the periodic table

The periodicity

Periods. To construct the table, we place each sequence in a separate row,

which we call a period.
The rows are aligned in such a way that the elements in each vertical column
possess certain similarities.
Groups. Each column of the periodic table is known as a group. The elements
belonging to a given group bear a strong similarity in their chemical
behaviors.

The Periodic Table

Periods in the Periodic Table

Groups in the Periodic Table

Elements in groups react in similar ways!

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Regions of the Periodic Table

Group 1A: Alkali Metals

Reaction of
potassium + H2O
Cutting sodium metal
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Group 2A: Alkaline Earth Metals

Magnesium

Magnesium
oxide
MgO
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Group 7A: The Halogens (salt makers) F, Cl, Br, I, At

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Group 8A: The Noble (Inert) Gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

Lighter than air balloons

Neon signs
Very Unreactive because they
have full electron levels

XeOF4

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Transition Elements

Lanthanides and actinides

Iron in air gives
iron(III) oxide
Fe2O3

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Mixture
Heterogen

Physical process

Macroscopic
scale

Physical process

Elements

Microscopic
scale

Homogen

Atoms

Nucleus

Chemical process

Chemical process

Compounds

Molecules

Electrons
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The structure of the atom (Atomic structure)

W. Thomson develops the plum pudding model:

a cloud of positive charges;
randomly distributed electrons.
E. Rutherford develops an experimental model where the particle (the charge is +2
and the relative atomic weight is 4) depart from the source and pass through a thin gold
foil.
He registers the deviation of the particles:
most of the particles are not deviated (there is plenty of empty space in the
atom);
some of the particles are slightly deviated (there are negatively charged
particles, with much lower mass then the particles, in the atom the
electrons);
few particles are turned (there is a concentrated, positive atomic charge with
the mass comparable to the particles).
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Conclusion: Nuclear model

all the positive charge and quite the entire mass of atom is concentrated in a
nucleus;
the electrons are surrounding the nucleus.
The chemical reactions do not affect the nucleus. The sum of the protons in the
nucleus is called atomic number (Z).
1p

+1

proton

1n

neutron

The sum of the proton and neutron is called mass number (A). Two species having
the same Z and different A are isotopes.
E.g. 11H (proton); 21D (deuterium);

1T

(tritium)
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Some rules for filling the orbital up

There are not two species with all the quantum numbers equal (Paulis Exclusion
Principle).
n = principal quantum number describes the energetic level of orbital (how far is the
orbital from the nucleus); n = 1, 2,3 .
l = azimuth quantum number describes the shape of the orbital; for n fixed,
l = 1, 2,3, (n-1)
m = magnetic quantum number describe the orientation of the orbital; for n,l fixed,
m = -l, -(l-1), -(l-2), , 0, , (l-2), (l-1), l
s = spin number describe the electron movement around its own axis,
s= +1/2 and 1/2

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Consequence
In one orbital there are maximum two electrons.

1s
2s
2p

3s
3p

3d

4s
4p

4d
4f

5s

5p
5d

5f

E.g.
11Na

6s
6p

6d

31Ga

7s
7p

8s
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Chemical elements
Every elements is characterized by:
- name;
- chemical symbol.
Atomic number = proton number from the
nucleus (its also the electron numbers)

Chemical symbol

Information from the periodic

tables of the elements

Atomic mass

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Allotropy
Allotropy is a behavior exhibited by certain chemical elements: these
elements can exist in two or more different forms, known as allotropes
of that element. In each different allotrope, the elements atoms are
bonded together in a different manner.
Allotropic forms of the carbon

Diamond

Graphite

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Atomic mass

MA = pi mi

pi = isotopic abundance
mi = isotopic mass

Units: 12 daltons = atomic mass of 12C

1 daltons (Da) = 1.660510-24 g

E.g. Chlorine

35Cl:

75,5%

37Cl:

24,5%

MA = 350,755 + 370,245 = 35,5

MA exacte = 35,453

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Molecular Mass (MM)

MM = niMAi

ni = no of atoms i
MAi = atomic mass of atoms i

E.g.
Water H2O
MM = 21,008 + 115,999 = 18,015 daltons
Glucose C6H12O6

MM = 612,011 + 121,008 + 615,999 = 180,156 daltons

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Ions
An ion is as atom or molecule which has lost or gained one or more
electrons, making it negatively or positively charged.

Formation of positive charged ions (cation)

Atome

Cations + Electrons

Cu
Cu

Cu+1 + 1eCu+2 + 2e-

Formation of negative charged ions (anions)

Atoms + Electrons

Anions

Cl + 1eS + 2e-

Cl-1
S-2

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Remember from the first chemistry course

Mole is a quantity of substance containing NA particles
Particles = atoms, molecules or ions

NA = 6.0221023 atoms/mol
Molar Mass (MM)
Mass of one mol from a substance, expressed in grams
The molar mass is equal with the molecular mass (or atomic), expressed
in grams.

E.g. water H2O

Molecular mass = 18.015 Da ; Molar mass = 18.015 mol/g
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Exercise
Water
1. How many moles are in 1kg of water?
1000 g / 18.015 g/mol = 55,5 mol
2. How many molecules are in 1kg of water?
55,5(6,0221023) = 3,341025 molecules

Iron

MA = 55,847
1mole = 55,847g, contain 6,0221023 atomes

3. How many atoms are in 1g?

1g / 55,847 g/mol = 0.0179 mol
0,0179(6,0221023) = 1,0781022 atoms
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The Chemistry Laws

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Ca(OH)2 + 2HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O

Calcium hydroxide + Nitric acid Calcium nitrate + Water
Consequence: the coefficients

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The low of perfect gas

An perfect gas is a gas where the molecules dont suffer

any interactions.

PV = nRT
P
pressure (Pascal Pa, 1 Pa = 1Nm-2 = 1kgm-1s-2;
1 atm = 1,014105 Pa
V

volume (m3)

moles number

temperature (K)

-1
perfect gas constant (8,31 Jmol-1K-1 = 8,31 kgm2s-2mol-1K32

Exercise

1) What is the volume occupied by 1 mol of perfect gas at 0C and

1 atm?
n = 1
T = 273,15 K
P = 1 atm = 1,014105 Pa
V = nRT / P = (18,31273,15) / 1,014105 = 2,270103 / 1,014105 =
2,2410-2 m3
1m3 = 1000litres, V = 22,4 liters
1 mol occupied 22,4 liters at 0C and 1 atm

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Exercise

2) What is the volume occupied by 1 mol of perfect gas at 25C

and 1 atm?
n = 1
T = 298,15 K
P = 1 atm = 1,014105 Pa
V = nRT / P = (18,31298,15) / 1,014105 = 2,47810 3 / 1,014105
= 2,4410-2 m3
1m3 = 1000litres, V = 24,4 liters
1 mol occupied 24,4 liters at 25C and 1 atm

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Calculation of chemical Equivalents

The Law of chemical equivalents the ratio between the mass and the chemical
equivalent is a constant for each participant in a chemical reaction.
Einorganic acid = Macid / number of hydrogen atoms
e.g.
EH SO /SO = M/2 = 98/2
2

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Eorganic acid = Macid / number oh carboxyl groups

Ebases = Mbases / number of hydroxide groups
e.g.
ENaOH = M/1 = 40/1
Esalt and metallic oxide = M / number of metal atoms x valence
e.g.
ECaO = M/2*1 = 56/2
Eelectrochemical reaction = A element / number of exchanged electrons
e.g. 2Al + 3 Cl2 = 2AlCl3
EAl = AAl/3 = 27/3

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