EDUCTION

Eduction

The formulation of a new proposition by the interchange

of the subject and the predicate of an original
proposition and/or by the use or removal of negatives.

Kinds of Formal Eduction

1. Conversion
2. Obversion

3. Contraposition
4. Inversion

Conversion

is the formulation of a new proposition by

interchanging the subject and predicate of an
original proposition but leaving its quality
unchanged.

Kinds of Conversion
a. Simple Conversion
b. Partial Conversion
Note:

Convertend

- the original proposition

Converse

- the new proposition

Conversion

- the process itself

Simple Conversion

the conversion is simple if the quantity of the

converse is the same as the quantity of the
convertend.
- E to E
- I to I

Partial Conversion

the conversion is partial if the quantity of the

proposition is reduced from universal to
particular.
- A to I
- E to O

Rules for Conversion

1. Interchange the subject and the predicate;
2. Retain the quality;
3. Do not extend any term.
Note:

- Often it is advisable to reduce proposition to logical form.

- Beware of converting A propositions by simple conversion.
- O propositions cannot be converted.
- The actual existence of a subject may not be asserted in the
converse if it has not been asserted in the convertend.

Example of Simple Conversion:

- E to E

No cat is a dog.
No dog is a cat.

- I to I

Some houses are white.

Some white (things) are houses.

Example of Partial Conversion:

- A to I

All men are mortal.

Some mortal (beings) are men.

- E to O

No aliens are voters.

Some voters are not aliens.

Exercise:

Give the converse of the following (if they have)

1. Every A is a B.
2. No A is a B.
3. Some A is a B.
4. Some A is not a B.
5. Some dogs are very fierce
animals.
6. Giraffes are animals with long
necks.

Some B is an A.
No B is an A.
Some B is an A.
No converse
Some very fierce animals are dogs.
Some animals with long necks are
giraffes

7. Some men are not very good

orators

No converse

8. Some of the most cheerful

Some continually sick (person) are
people I know are continually sick. the most cheerful people I know.
9. Good example is the most
effective way of influencing
another to good.

Some of the most effective way of

influencing another to good is
through good example.

10. What is sauce for the goose is

sauce gander.

No converse.

Criticize the following examples. First, note whether the propositions

are A, E, I, or O. Then, applying the rules for conversion, state whether
the inference is valid or invalid.
1. All men have free will; therefore all having free will are men.
2. All truly democratic governments respect human rights; therefore all
government that respect human rights are truly democratic.

3. If all whales are mammals, there can be no doubt that some

mammals are whales.
4. If it is true that democracies are free countries, all free countries
must be true democracies.
5. Some football players are good students; therefore some good
students are football players .
6. Some football players are not good students, therefore some good
students are not football players.
7. Some animals are not dogs, therefore some dogs are not animals.
8. No mere man is entirely without sin; therefore none who is entirely
without sin is a mere man.

Obversion

the formulation of a new proposition by

retaining the subject and quantity of an original
proposition, changing its quality, and using as
predicate the contradictory of the original
predicate.
It also involves either the use or removal of two
negatives: the use or omission of one negative
changes the quality, the use or omission of the
other negative changes the predicate to its
contradictory.

Note:

Obvertend

- the original proposition

Obverse

- the new proposition

Obversion

- the process itself

Rules for Obversion

1. Retain the subject and the quantity of the obvertend;
2. Change the quality. If the obvertend is affirmative, the obverse
must be negative; and if the obvertend is negative to obverse must
be affirmative;
- A to E

Every cat is an animal to

No cat is a non-animal

- E to A

No cat is a dog to

Every cat is a non-dog

- I to O

Some house is white to

Some house is not non-white

- O to I

Some house is not white to

Some house is non-white

3. As predicate, use the contradictory predicate of the original
proposition.

Exercise:

Give the converse of the following (if they have)

1. Every A is a B.

No A is a non-B.

2. No A is a B.

Every A is a non-B.

3. Some A is a B.

Some A is not a non-B.

4. Some A is not a B.

Some A is a non-B

5. Wood is inflammable.

Wood is not non-inflammable.

6. Wood is not magnetic.

7. All men are mortal.

Wood is non-magnetic.

8. He is ineligible.

He is not eligible.

9. Parts of Asia are not habitable.

Parts of Asia are non-habitable.

10. Asbestos is noninflammable.

Asbestos is not inflammable.

All men are not immortal.

Criticize the following examples. State whether the inference is valid or

invalid.

1. All men are mortal; therefore no men are immortal.

2. No stone is immortal; therefore every stone is mortal.
3. No murderer will enter the kingdom of heaven; therefore all
murderers are ones who will not enter the kingdom of heaven.
4. His lecture was not without humor; hence, it must have had some
humor.
5. His rendition was not particularly inspiring; hence, it must have been
somewhat uninspiring.
6. If the officer was not tactful, he must have been tactless.
7. No mere man is entirely free from sin; therefore every mere man is
somewhat blemished with sin.
8. If all soldier are combatants, no soldiers are noncombatants.
9. What is not visible is invisible.
10. Some judges are unjust; therefore some judges are not just.

Contraposition

is the formulation of a new proposition

whose subject is the contradictory of the
original predicate.

Kinds of Contraposition
a. Partial Contraposition

b. Complete Contraposition

Note:

Contraponend

- the original proposition

Contraposit

- the new proposition

Contraposition

- the process itself

Rules for Partial Contraposition

1. The subject is contradictory of the original predicate.
2. The quality is changed.
3. The predicate is the original subject.
To get Partial Contraposition
1. Obvert
2. Converse the obverse
Symbols and their Partial Contraposition
- A to E

- E to I

- O to I

- I no partial contraposit

Rules for Complete Contraposition

1. The subject is contradictory of the original predicate.
2. The quality is not changed.
3. The predicate is the contradictory of the original subject.
To get Complete Contraposition
1. Obvert

2. Converse the obverse

3. Obvert the converse of the obverse
Symbols and their Complete Contraposition
- A to A

- E to O

- O to O

- I no complete contraposit

Example
Partial Contraposition:
(Contraponend) Every dog is an animal,
Obvert:

No dog is a non-animal

Convert:

No non-animal is a dog

(Contraposit)

Complete Contraposition:
(Contraponend) Every man is mortal,
Obvert:
Convert:
Obvert:

No man is non-mortal,
No non-mortal is man,
Every non-mortal is a non-man

(Contraposit)

Exercise:

Give the contraposit of the following (if they have)

1. Every A is a B.
2. No A is a B.
3. Some A is a B.
4. Some A is not a B.
5. All voters are citizens.
6. No aliens are voters.
7. Some blackboards are green.
8. No atheist are Christian.
9. All belonging to the class will
go to the museum.
10. Some Asiatics are not
favorably disposed towards
Americans.

Criticize the following examples. State whether the inference is valid or

invalid.

1. If dogs are animals, no non-animals are dogs and all non-animals are
non-dogs.
2. Some animals are dogs; therefore some dogs are not animals; hence,
too, some non-dogs are non-animals.
3. Whatever is fungus is a plant; hence whatever is not a plant is not a
fungus. In other words, non-plants are non-fungi; that is nothing but
plants are fungi.
4. Whatever is inseparable from a thing is found wherever the thing is
found; hence, what is not found wherever a thing is found is not
inseparable from the thing.
5. Since all ruminants are cloven-hoofed, as soon as we see that an
animal is not cloven-hoofed, we see that it is not a ruminant.
6. A good definition is convertible with the term defined; hence, what
is not convertible with the term defined cannot be a good definition.

7. No animals that do not suckle their young are mammals; therefore

some non-mammals are animals that do not suckle their young.
8. Since all reptiles are vertebrates, we can be sure that all nonvertebrates are not reptiles.
9. If no non-vertebrates are reptiles, it follows that all non-reptiles are
non-vertebrates.
10. Since no atheist are Christians, only non-Christians are atheist.

Inversion

is the formulation of a new proposition

whose subject is the contradictory of the
original subject.

Kinds of Inversion
a. Partial Inversion

b. Complete Inversion

Note:

Invertend

- the original proposition

Inverse

- the new proposition

Inversion

- the process itself

Rules for Partial Inversion

1. The quality is changed.
3. The predicate is the same as the original proposition.
To get Partial Inversion
1. Obvert
2. Convert
3. Obvert
4. Convert
5. Obvert
Symbols and their Partial Inversion (Only A & E can be Inverted)
- A to O
- E to I

Rules for Complete Inversion

1. The quality is not changed.
2. The predicate is the contradictory of the original predicate.
To get Complete Inversion

1. Convert
2. Obvert
3. Convert
4. Obvert
Symbols and their Complete Inversion (Only A & E can be Inverted)
- A to I
- E to O

Example
Partial Inversion:
(Invertend)
Obvert:
Convert:
Obvert:
Convert:
Obvert:

Every cat is an animal,

No cat is a non-animal,
No non-animal is a cat,
Every non-animal is a non-cat,
Some non-cat is a non-animal,
Some non-cat is not an animal. (Inverse)

Complete Inversion:

(Invertend)

No cat is a dog,

Convert:
Obvert:
Convert:
Obvert:

No dog is a cat,
Every dog is a non-cat,
Some non- cat is a dog,
Some non-cat is not a non-dog. (Inverse)