Computer Networks Network

NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES
AND PRINCIPLE
(DSC702)
LECTURE 1
B.O SADIQ
E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA
15-1
THE OSI MODEL AND

THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
OBJECTIVES
UNDERSTAND THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE OSI MODEL
UNDERSTAND THE LAYERS OF THE OSI MODEL AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS
UNDERSTAND THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE TCP/IP
PROTOCOL SUITE
DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THE OSI MODEL AND THE TCP/IP

SUITE
DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THE THREE TYPES OF INTERNET
15-2
ADDRESSES
B.O SADIQ
NETWORKING
COMPUTER NETWORK A COLLECTION OF
COMPUTING DEVICES THAT ARE CONNECTED IN
VARIOUS WAYS IN ORDER TO COMMUNICATE
AND SHARE RESOURCES
USUALLY, THE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN
COMPUTERS IN A NETWORK ARE MADE USING
PHYSICAL WIRES OR CABLESHOWEVER, SOME
CONNECTIONS ARE WIRELESS, USING RADIO
WAVES OR INFRARED SIGNALS
B.O SADIQ
15-3
NETWORKING
THE GENERIC TERM NODE OR HOST REFERS TO
ANY DEVICE ON A NETWORK
DATA TRANSFER RATE THE SPEED WITH
WHICH DATA IS MOVED FROM ONE PLACE ON A
NETWORK TO ANOTHER
DATA TRANSFER RATE IS A KEY ISSUE IN
COMPUTER NETWORKS
B.O SADIQ
15-4
NETWORKING
COMPUTER NETWORKS HAVE OPENED UP AN
ENTIRE FRONTIER IN THE WORLD OF COMPUTING
CALLED THE CLIENT/SERVER MODEL
B.O SADIQ
NETWORKING
FILE SERVER A COMPUTER THAT
STORES AND MANAGES FILES FOR
MULTIPLE USERS ON A NETWORK
WEB SERVER A COMPUTER DEDICATED
TO RESPONDING TO REQUESTS (FROM
THE BROWSER CLIENT) FOR WEB PAGES
B.O SADIQ
15-6
TYPES OF NETWORKS
LOCAL-AREA NETWORK (LAN) A NETWORK
THAT CONNECTS A RELATIVELY SMALL NUMBER
OF MACHINES IN A RELATIVELY CLOSE
GEOGRAPHICAL AREA
B.O SADIQ
15-7
TYPES OF NETWORKS
VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS, CALLED TOPOLOGIES, HAVE
BEEN USED TO ADMINISTER LANS
RING TOPOLOGY A CONFIGURATION THAT CONNECTS
ALL NODES IN A CLOSED LOOP ON WHICH MESSAGES
TRAVEL IN ONE DIRECTION
STAR TOPOLOGY A CONFIGURATION THAT CENTERS
AROUND ONE NODE TO WHICH ALL OTHERS ARE
CONNECTED AND THROUGH WHICH ALL MESSAGES
ARE SENT
BUS TOPOLOGY ALL NODES ARE CONNECTED TO A
SINGLE COMMUNICATION LINE THAT CARRIES
MESSAGES IN BOTH DIRECTIONS
B.O SADIQ
15-8
TYPES OF NETWORKS
Various network topologies
A BUS TECHNOLOGY CALLED ETHERNET HAS

15-9
BECOME THE INDUSTRY STANDARD FOR LOCAL- 15-10
B.O SADIQ
TYPES OF NETWORKS
WIDE-AREA NETWORK (WAN) A NETWORK THAT
CONNECTS TWO OR MORE LOCAL-AREA NETWORKS
OVER A POTENTIALLY LARGE GEOGRAPHIC DISTANCE
OFTEN ONE PARTICULAR NODE ON A LAN IS SET UP TO
SERVE AS A GATEWAY TO HANDLE ALL
COMMUNICATION GOING BETWEEN THAT LAN AND
OTHER NETWORKS
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NETWORKS IS CALLED
INTERNETWORKING
THE INTERNET, AS WE KNOW IT TODAY, IS
ESSENTIALLY THE ULTIMATE WIDE-AREA NETWORK,
B.O SADIQ SPANNING THE ENTIRE
E&CE DEPARTMENT
ABU ZARIA
GLOBE
15-10
TYPES OF NETWORKS
METROPOLITAN-AREA NETWORK (MAN) THE
COMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURES THAT HAVE
BEEN DEVELOPED IN AND AROUND LARGE CITIES
B.O SADIQ
15-11
INTERNET CONNECTIONS
INTERNET BACKBONE A SET OF HIGH-SPEED
NETWORKS THAT CARRY INTERNET TRAFFIC
THESE NETWORKS ARE PROVIDED BY
COMPANIES SUCH AS AT&T, GTE, AND IBM
INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP) A COMPANY
THAT PROVIDES OTHER COMPANIES OR
INDIVIDUALS WITH ACCESS TO THE INTERNET
B.O SADIQ
15-12
THERE ARE VARIOUS TECHNOLOGIES AVAILABLE THAT
YOU CAN USE TO CONNECT A HOME COMPUTER TO THE
INTERNET
A PHONE MODEM CONVERTS COMPUTER DATA INTO
AN ANALOG AUDIO SIGNAL FOR TRANSFER OVER A
TELEPHONE LINE, AND THEN A MODEM AT THE
DESTINATION CONVERTS IT BACK AGAIN INTO DATA
A DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (DSL) USES REGULAR
COPPER PHONE LINES TO TRANSFER DIGITAL DATA TO
AND FROM THE PHONE COMPANYS CENTRAL OFFICE
A CABLE MODEM USES THE SAME LINE THAT YOUR
CABLE TV SIGNALS
COME IN ON TO TRANSFER THE
B.O SADIQ
15-13
BROADBAND A CONNECTION IN WHICH
TRANSFER SPEEDS ARE FASTER THAN 128
BITS PER SECOND
DSL CONNECTIONS AND CABLE MODEMS ARE
BROADBAND CONNECTIONS
THE SPEED FOR DOWNLOADS (GETTING DATA
FROM THE INTERNET TO YOUR HOME
COMPUTER) MAY NOT BE THE SAME AS UPLOADS
(SENDING DATA FROM YOUR HOME COMPUTER
B.O SADIQ
15-14
TO THE INTERNET)
OSI MODEL
15-15
B.O SADIQ
OSI LAYERS
15-16
B.O SADIQ
AN EXCHANGE USING OSI MODEL
15-17
B.O SADIQ
Physical layer
B.O SADIQ

18
Note:
The physical layer is responsible
for the movement of individual bits
from one hop (node) to the next.
B.O SADIQ

19
Data link layer
B.O SADIQ

20
Note:
The data link layer is responsible for
moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.
B.O SADIQ

21
Hop-to-hop delivery
B.O SADIQ
22
Network layer
B.O SADIQ

23
Note:
The network layer is responsible for
the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
B.O SADIQ

24
Source-to-destination delivery
B.O SADIQ
25
Transport layer
B.O SADIQ

26
Note:
The transport layer is responsible for
the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
B.O SADIQ

27
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
B.O SADIQ

28
Session layer
B.O SADIQ

29
Presentation layer
B.O SADIQ

30
Application layer
B.O SADIQ

31
Summary of layers
B.O SADIQ

32
B.O SADIQ
15-33
B.O SADIQ
15-34
IP
CORE INTERNET PROTOCOL

LAYER
A CONNECTIONLESS UNRELIABLE PROTOCOL THAT IS

PART OF THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
ARP (ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL)
RESOLVES IP ADDRESSES TO MAC ADDRESSES

ICMP (INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL)
DIAGNOSTICS AND ERROR REPORTING
(IGMP) INTERNET GROUP MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL
MANAGEMENT OF GROUP MULTICAST
B.O SADIQ
15-35
2.4 Addressing
Three different levels of addresses are used in an internet using the TCP/IP
protocols: physical (link) address, logical (IP) address, and
port address.
The topics discussed in this section include:
Physical Address
Logical Address
Port Address
36
B.O SADIQ
Addresses in TCP/IP
B.O SADIQ

37
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
38
B.O SADIQ
NETWORK PROTOCOLS
NETWORK PROTOCOLS ARE LAYERED SUCH THAT
EACH ONE RELIES ON THE PROTOCOLS THAT
UNDERLIE IT
SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS A PROTOCOL STACK
15-39
Layering of key network protocols

B.O SADIQ
TCP/IP
TCP STANDS FOR TRANSMISSION
CONTROL PROTOCOL
TCP SOFTWARE BREAKS MESSAGES INTO PACKETS, HANDS
THEM OFF TO THE IP SOFTWARE FOR DELIVERY, AND THEN
ORDERS AND REASSEMBLES THE PACKETS AT THEIR
DESTINATION
IP STANDS FOR INTERNET PROTOCOL

IP SOFTWARE DEALS WITH THE ROUTING OF PACKETS
THROUGH THE MAZE OF INTERCONNECTED NETWORKS TO
THEIR FINAL DESTINATION
B.O SADIQ
15-40
TCP HEADER
15-41
B.O SADIQ
TCP/IP (CONT.)
UDP STANDS FOR USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL
IT IS AN ALTERNATIVE TO TCP
THE MAIN DIFFERENCE IS THAT TCP IS
HIGHLY RELIABLE, AT THE COST OF
DECREASED PERFORMANCE, WHILE UDP IS
LESS RELIABLE, BUT GENERALLY FASTER
B.O SADIQ
15-42
UDP HEADER
15-43
B.O SADIQ
HIGH-LEVEL PROTOCOLS
OTHER PROTOCOLS BUILD ON THE
FOUNDATION ESTABLISHED BY THE
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL
(SMTP)
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)
TELNET
B.O SADIQ
HYPER TEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL
15-44
PORT NUMBERS
15-45
B.O SADIQ
FIREWALLS
FIREWALL A MACHINE AND ITS SOFTWARE THAT
SERVE AS A SPECIAL GATEWAY TO A NETWORK,
PROTECTING IT FROM INAPPROPRIATE ACCESS
FILTERS THE NETWORK TRAFFIC THAT
COMES IN, CHECKING THE VALIDITY OF THE
MESSAGES AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE AND
PERHAPS DENYING SOME MESSAGES
ALTOGETHER
ENFORCES AN ORGANIZATIONS ACCESS

CONTROL POLICY
B.O SADIQ
15-46
FIREWALLS
B.O SADIQ
15-47
NETWORK ADDRESSES
HOSTNAME A UNIQUE IDENTIFICATION
THAT SPECIFIES A PARTICULAR
COMPUTER ON THE INTERNET
FOR EXAMPLE
MATISSE.CSC.VILLANOVA.EDU
CONDOR.DEVELOCORP.COM
B.O SADIQ
15-48
NETWORK ADDRESSES
NETWORK SOFTWARE TRANSLATES A
HOSTNAME INTO ITS CORRESPONDING IP
ADDRESS
FOR EXAMPLE
205.39.145.18
B.O SADIQ
15-49
NETWORK ADDRESSES
AN IP ADDRESS CAN BE SPLIT INTO
NETWORK ADDRESS, WHICH SPECIFIES A
SPECIFIC NETWORK
HOST NUMBER, WHICH SPECIFIES A

PARTICULAR MACHINE IN THAT NETWORK
15-50
B.O SADIQ
DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

A HOSTNAME CONSISTS OF THE COMPUTER
NAME FOLLOWED BY THE DOMAIN NAME
CSC.VILLANOVA.EDU IS THE DOMAIN NAME
A DOMAIN NAME IS SEPARATED INTO TWO OR MORE
SECTIONS THAT SPECIFY THE ORGANIZATION, AND
POSSIBLY A SUBSET OF AN ORGANIZATION, OF WHICH
THE COMPUTER IS A PART
TWO ORGANIZATIONS CAN HAVE A COMPUTER NAMED
THE SAME THING BECAUSE THE DOMAIN NAME MAKES
IT CLEAR WHICH ONE IS BEING REFERRED TO
B.O SADIQ
15-51
DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

THE VERY LAST SECTION OF THE DOMAIN IS
CALLED ITS TOP-LEVEL DOMAIN (TLD) NAME
15-52
Top-level domains, including some relatively new ones

B.O SADIQ
DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

ORGANIZATIONS BASED IN COUNTRIES OTHER THAN THE
UNITED STATES USE A TOP-LEVEL DOMAIN THAT
CORRESPONDS TO THEIR TWO-LETTER COUNTRY CODES
15-53
B.O SADIQ
DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

THE DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS) IS CHIEFLY
USED TO TRANSLATE HOSTNAMES INTO
NUMERIC IP ADDRESSES
DNS IS AN EXAMPLE OF A DISTRIBUTED
DATABASE
IF THAT SERVER CAN RESOLVE THE
HOSTNAME, IT DOES SO
IF NOT, THAT SERVER
ASKS ANOTHER
DOMAIN NAME SERVER
B.O SADIQ
15-54
THEORY OF SUBNETTING
IP ADDRESSING CLASSES
SUBNET MASKING
SUBNETTING
EXERCISES
ANDING FUNCTION
B.O SADIQ
15-55
SUBNETTING
WHY ? - BECAUSE USING NATURAL ADDRESS
MASKS ARE NOT EFFICIENT - TOO LARGE
REDUCES THE SIZE OF THE NETWORK, WHICH IN
TURN MAKES IT EASIER TO MANAGE AND
TROUBLESHOOT
BREAKING UP THE ADDRESS SPACE INTO USEABLE
SUBNETS
PROCESS INVOLVES BORROWING BITS FROM THE
HOST PART OF THE ADDRESS TO CREATE A
B.O SADIQ
15-56
LARGER NETWORK ADDRESS
IP ADDRESS RANGE
15-57
B.O SADIQ
PRIVATE IP ADDRESS RANGE
15-58
B.O SADIQ
SUBNETTING
IP ADDRESSING
CLASSES WITHIN IP
CLASS A - 16,777,214 (224 - 2) - GOVERNMENTS - START WITH 0
CLASS B - 65,534 (216 -2) - MEDIUM-SIZE COMPANIES - START
WITH 10
CLASS C - 254 (28 -2) - ALL OTHER ENTITIES - START WITH 110
CLASS D - RESERVED FOR USE BY MULTICAST SERVICES

PROVIDED BY THE INTERNET GROUP MANAGEMENT GROUP
(IGMP) - START WITH 1110
MULTICAST BROADCASTS ALLOW IP DATAGRAMS TO BE
SENT TO SPECIFIC GROUPS THAT BELONG TO A MULTICAST
GROUP
DEPARTMENT
ABU ZARIA
CLASS E - NOT IN E&CE
USE
OR ONLY
USED FOR TESTING AND 15-59
DEVELOPMENT RESERVED FOR FUTURE USE - START WITH
11110
B.O SADIQ
IP ADDRESSING
Network
Host
193.32.2.0
WE NEED TO USE BITS FROM THE HOST PART OF AN IP
ADDRESS TO CREATE SUBNETS
THE NUMBER OF BITS DEPEND ON THE NUMBER OF
SUBNETS NEEDED FOR THAT COMPANY
B.O SADIQ
15-60
SUBNET MASK
PROPERTIES OF THE SUBNET MASK ARE
32 BITS
IN BINARY FORMAT
EXPRESSED AS 4 OCTETS
DEFINED FROM LEFT TO RIGHT
USED BY INTERNETWORKING DEVICES TO FIND OUT
WHAT TYPE OF NETWORK/ SUBNETWORK IS
INSTALLED/USED BY A COMPANY
B.O SADIQ
15-61
SUBNET MASK
DEFAULT SUBNET MASKS
CLASS A - 255.0.0.0
CLASS B - 255.255.0.0
CLASS C - 255.255.255.0
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN WE USE
SUBNETTING?
B.O SADIQ
15-62
SUBNET MASK
THE MOST MISUNDERSTOOD PART OF IP ADDRESSING
DO NOT INTRODUCE ABOVE IN A CLASS !

SUBNET MASKS ARE USED TO MAKE IT EASY TO DISTINGUISH
BETWEEN NETWORK AND HOST ADDRESS
EXAMPLE A CLASS B NETWORK NOT SUBNETTED

130.12.0.0 - IP ADDRESS
255.255.0.0 - SUBNET MASK
N N
H H
ALL NETWORK BITS ASSIGNED TO 1
11111111.11111111.0.0
15-63
B.O SADIQ
SUBNETTING EXERCISE A
EXAMPLE OF SUBNETTING
THE NETWORK ADMINISTRATOR OF IYACC RECEIVES NEW NETWORK

ADDRESS 132.8.0.0
IYACC HAS 8 DEPARTMENTS
A NUMBER OF QUESTIONS THAT NEED TO BE ANSWERED ARE:-
1. WHAT CLASS IS THE NETWORK ADDRESS?

2. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE NEEDED?
3. HOW MANY BITS ARE BORROWED FROM THE HOST PART OF THE
ADDRESS?
4. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE DEFINED AND HOW MANY OF THESE

ARE USEABLE?
5. WHAT IS THE DEFAULT SUBNET MASK?
6. WHAT IS THE NEW CUSTOMISED SUBNET MASK?
B.O SADIQ
7. WHAT IS THE DECIMAL

VALUEABU
OF
EACH SUBNET?
E&CE DEPARTMENT
ZARIA
15-64
SUBNETTING
ANS. ITS A CLASS B ADDRESS
ANS. 8 DEPARTMENTS SO WE NEED 8 SUBNETS
3.HOW MANY BITS NEED TO BE BORROWED?
ANS. 4 BITS TO PROVIDE 14 SUBNETS
4. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE DEFINED AND HOW
MANY OF THESE ARE USEABLE?
ANS. 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 = 16 ARE DEFINED
16 - 2 = 14 ARE USEABLE
ANS. 255.255.0.0 OR 11111111.11111111.0.0
15-65
B.O SADIQ
SUBNETTING
ANS. 128+64+32+16 = 1111 STARTING WITH THE LEFTMOST
SIGNIFICANT BIT VALUE OF THE LEFTMOST HOST OCTET
255.255.240.0 OR 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000
7. WHAT IS THE DECIMAL VALUE OF EACH SUBNET?
ANS. 138.8.0.0
10001010.00001000.00010000.00000001
TO AND INCLUDING
10001010.00001000.11100000.11111110
138.8.16.1 - 138.8.31.254 - SUBNET 1
138.8.32.1 - 138.8.47.254 - SUBNET 2

138.8.48.1 - 138.8.63.254 - SUBNET 3
ETC
138.8.208.1 - 138.8.223.254 - SUBNET 14
NETWORK, SUBNET AND HOST
B.O SADIQ
15-66
SUBNETTING
8. WHAT IS THE TOTAL NUMBER OF HOSTS?
14 SUBNETS
THE REMAINDER OF THE HOST PART OF THE
ADDRESS IS 12 BITS
WE HAVE 16-4 BORROWED = 12 BITS LEFT FOR

HOSTS
EACH SUBNET CAN HAVE 2 TO THE POWER OF 16 -2
HOSTS
212 -2 = 4094
-2 FOR NETWORK AND BROADCAST ADDRESSES
B.O SADIQ
DEPARTMENT ABU
14 USEABLE E&CE
SUBNETS
XZARIA
4094 USEABLE HOST
ADDRESSES
15-67
SUBNETTING EXERCISE B
WHAT WOULD BE THE CASE IF THE NETWORK
ADMINISTRATOR WERE GIVEN THE FOLLOWING NETWORK
ADDRESS 192.12.8.0, AND THE NUMBER OF DEPARTMENTS
WERE 7.
3. HOW MANY BITS ARE BORROWED FROM THE HOST PART OF THE
ADDRESS?
4. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE DEFINED AND HOW MANY OF THESE
ARE USEABLE?

B.O SADIQ
7. WHAT IS THE DECIMAL

VALUE
OF
EACH SUBNET?
E&CE DEPARTMENT
ABU
ZARIA
15-68
SUBNETTING
CLASS C AS IT IS ABOVE 191
7 SUBNETS -WHY NOT USE JUST 3 BITS
3. HOW MANY BITS ARE BORROWED FROM THE HOST PART OF

THE ADDRESS?
4 BITS ARE NEEDED
4. HOW MANY SUBNETS ARE DEFINED AND HOW MANY OF
THESE ARE USEABLE?
2 X 2 X 2 X 2 = 16 ARE DEFINED - 16 - 2 = 14 ARE USEABLE
255.255.255.0 CLASS C
255.255.255.240
B.O SADIQ
15-69
SUBNETTING
7. WHAT IS THE DECIMAL VALUE OF EACH SUBNET?
192.12.8.0
11000000.0001100.00001000.00010000
TO AND INCLUDING
11000000.0001100.00001000.11111110
192.12.8.16 - 192.12.8.31 - SUBNET 1
192.12.8.32 - 192.12.8.47 - SUBNET 2
192.12.8.48 - 192.12.8.63 - SUBNET 3
ETC
192.12.8.208 - 192.8.223 - SUBNET 14
14 X (24 -2 = 14)
14 X 14 = 196
NETWORK, SUBNET AND HOST

B.O SADIQ
15-70
ANDING FUNCTION
IN ORDER TO ROUTE A DATA PACKET, THE ROUTER MUST
FIRST DETERMINE THE DESTINATION NETWORK/SUBNET
ADDRESS BY PERFORMING A LOGICAL AND USING THE
DESTINATION HOST'S IP ADDRESS AND THE SUBNET
MASK. THE RESULT WILL BE THE NETWORK/SUBNET
ADDRESS.
B.O SADIQ
15-71

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NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

THE OSI MODEL AND

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THE OSI MODEL AND THE TCP/IP

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

Various network topologies

A BUS TECHNOLOGY CALLED ETHERNET HAS

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

AN EXCHANGE USING OSI MODEL

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

Data link layer

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

CORE INTERNET PROTOCOL

A CONNECTIONLESS UNRELIABLE PROTOCOL THAT IS

RESOLVES IP ADDRESSES TO MAC ADDRESSES

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

Layering of key network protocols

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

IP STANDS FOR INTERNET PROTOCOL

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

HYPER TEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

ENFORCES AN ORGANIZATIONS ACCESS

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

E&CE DEPARTMENT ABU ZARIA

HOST NUMBER, WHICH SPECIFIES A