BEC304

TIMBER DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

LEARNING OUTCOMES
SYLLABUS
LESSON PLAN

Learning outcomes
At the end of the lecture student will be able
to;
Design timber beam, column, wood
trusses and timber deck
Design the glued laminated timber
members
Understand the properties of timber its
variations as structural members

SYLLABUS CONTENT
1.

Introduction to timber as structural member

2.

Introduction of relevant timber design codes

3.

Beam

Timber building

Architect Wooi Lok Kuang

Dewan Filharmonik - Petronas

Current scenario in
timber construction

Usage as the principle material in the

construction industry is very limited and far
from satisfactory
Large quantity are mostly limited to
temporary structures such as formwork and
structures of minor importance such as roof
truss.
Timber being used in a manner not in
accordance to good timber practice i.e not
utilizing proper treatment, seasoning and
good design/detailing practice

The
outcome of
timber
industries

Tarzan suffers the

consequences of deforestation

Too many deforestation

without replanting

Can engineer recognize the timber

grade/species/quality ??

Grain - // or

Mixed species

Sapwood and heartwood

Irregular growth of timber

-The effect is lesser if axially loading but poor in
bending resistance
Strong in parallel to grain
Weak in tension perpendicular to grain

wane

Slope of grain

warp

Checks/cracks

Need to understand these facts in design for

long life of timber structures

To reduce the uncertainty in the utilisation

of timber in construction, need
timber/timber product;

Less variability in strength and

dimension
Less effect of strength reducing
characteristics on the strength
properties of timber
stringent manufacturing process
and the product can be certified

Engineered Wood Products

Forintek
Canada
Corp.

Laminated veneer lumber(LVL)

Glued laminated timber (GLULAM)

Parallel grain
lumber

Finger
jointing

Glued and
pressed

Can one day in Malaysia we able to

see these structures?
Japan expo
centre

Germany large
pool

Canada train station

Library in
Australia

Need engineers and architects,

builders, contractors, housing
agencies, timber industries etc to
promote the use of timber as
structural members.

INTRODUCTION

The inherent variability of a material such as timber,

which is unique in its structure and mode of growth,
results in characteristics and properties which are
distinct and more complex than those of other
common structural materials such as concrete, steel
and brickwork. Some of the characteristics which
influence design and specific to timber are:
The moisture content
The difference in strength when loads are applied
parallel and perpendicular to grain direction
The duration of the application of the load
The method adopted for the strength grading of the
timber.

Terms for timber

Timber are described as the normal

sawn structural members. Generally,
timber will contain of macroscopic
defects (cracks, knots etc) of different
shapes, sizes and orientation
Wood refer to small, clear
specimens, which are free of any
macroscopic defects. So wood is the
basic materials obtain from trees

The structure of timber

A tree has three subsystems:
roots trunk and crown;
Roots-spreading through the
soil as well as acting as a
foundation enable the growing
tree to withstand wind forces.
They absorb moisture
containing minerals from the
soil and transfer it via the trunk
to the crown

Tree

Cont..

Trunk provides rigidity, mechanical

strength and height to maintain the
crown. Also transport moisture and
minerals up to the crown and sap down
from the crown
Crown provides as large as possible a
catchments area covered by leaves. This
produce chemical reactions that form
sugar and cellulose which cause the
growth of the tree

As engineer we are mainly concern

with the trunk of the tree.

The crosssection of a
trunk

Composition of wood

Long thin tabular cells made up of cellulose and

bound together by substance called lignin.
Cells oriented in the direction of the axis of the
trunk except for cells called rays run radially
across the trunk.
A tree produces new layer of wood under the
bark in the early part of every growing seasons
and the layer is called annular rings, annual rings
or growth rings. The age of a tree may be
determined by counting its growth ring

In temperate countries, a tree produces a new layer at early part

of growth seasons and ceases at the end of growth seasons or
during winter months (eccentric rings)
In tropical countries, trees growth throughout the year- more
uniform wood cells
Annular ring is divided into two layers: inner layer made up
relatively large cavities called springwood and outer layer of thick
walls and small cavities called summerwood.

The timber itself can be

differentiated into sapwood and
heartwood
Sapwood
The annular band of crosssection nearest to the bark
The living part of the trunk,
where xylem cells are still
living
Sapwood is lighter in color
compared to heartwood and is
25 170 mm wide depending
on species
Sapwood acts a medium of
transportation for sap from
roots to the leaves

sapwood

heartwood

e.g of sapwood trees:

Jelutong, Rubberwood
and Ramin

Cont..
Heartwood
The central core of the wood which is inside the
sapwood is heartwood.
The physiological dead part of the xylem
Cells are lignified and presence of extractives.
Heartwood functions mainly to give mechanical
support or stiffness to the trunk

Sapwood has lower natural resistance to attacks

by fungi and insect and accepts preservative
more easily than heartwood

Types of wood
Hardwoods and softwoods

The terms softwood and hardwood do not indicate softness or

hardness of particular timbers. In fact, some hardwoods are softer
and lighter than softwoods. The main differences between
hardwoods and softwoods are botanical, and relate to the way the
tree grows and the timber is laid down:
leaves Hardwoods have broad leaves and lose their leaves at
the end of growing seasons, while softwoods are conifers and have
more needle-like leaves and generally evergreen
colour Hardwoods often have darker coloured wood, while
softwoods are invariably light in colour. (Note that there are a
number of species of hardwoods with light coloured woods.)
density Most hardwoods have thicker cell walls than softwoods.
Hardwoods often have higher densities than softwoods. Again this
is not a definitive test, but it does reflect most of the Australian
and Malaysian species.

Characteristics of
Characteristics of
softwood
hardwood
Quick growth rate, trees
Slow growth rate, takes
can be felled after 30 years
time to mature over 100
resulting in low density
years results in higher
timber with relatively low
density and strength.
strength.
Generally good durability
Generally poor durability
less dependency on
qualities unless treated with
preservatives
preservatives
More expensive than
Due to speed of felling, they
softwood
are readily available and
comparatively cheap-i.e
rubber trees.

Microstructure of
softwood and hardwoods

tracheids

Microstructure of softwood

Softwood derives its strength from

a matrix of cellulose and
hemicellulose molecules bound
together with lignin.
Consists of single cells called
tracheids, which are like straws in
plan
Tracheids function as conduction
and support
The remainder are parenchyma,
ray, resin and pith cells that
primarily store and transit food.
Rays run in radial direction and
allow the convection of liquids to
where they are needed
The tracheids' vertical orientation with the trees' trunk explains the
bending strength of wood "parallel with the grain direction" and its
susceptibility to splitting "perpendicular to the grain direction."
Per unit of weight, softwood is stronger than steel.

Microstructure of
hardwood

More complex than softwood.

With additional thick walled cells
called fibres providing the
structural support and thin walled
cells called vessels providing
medium for food conduction
Also consists of distributed
parenchyma cells, and ray cells
wide enough in some species to
be seen easily with the naked eye.

The fibre's vertical orientation with the trunk explains the high
bending strength of hardwoods "parallel with the grain direction"
and its susceptibility to splitting "perpendicular to the grain
direction."

Physical Properties of
timber

Moisture content behaviour of timber unlike other material

significantly influenced by the existence and variation of its
moisture. The moisture content as determined by oven drying of
a test piece
w = 100 (m1 m2)/m2
Where:
m1 is the mass of the test piece before drying (in g)
m2 is the mass of the test piece after drying (in g)

Moisture contained in green timber is held both within the cells

(free water) and within the cell walls (bound water)
The condition in which all free water has been removed but the
cell walls are still saturated is known as the fibre saturation point
(FSP)

At levels of moisture above FSP, the

physical and mechanical properties remain
constants.
Variations of moisture below FSP cause
considerable changes to properties such as
weight, strength, elasticity and shrinkage
and durability.
Equilibrium MC at room temperature in
timber/wood can be achieved by seasoning
it after being cut from tree.

Seasoning- is the control

drying.
Methods:
Air seasoning

in which the timber is stacked and

layered with air-space in open sided
sheds to promote natural drying
Relatively inexpensive with very little loss
in the quality of timber
Disadvantage- space is unavailable for
long period and limited control in the
space between the layers and the stacks.

Kiln drying

Timber is dried out in a heated,

ventilated and humidified oven.
Requires specialist equipment and
more expensive in terms of energy
input
Offer control environment to
achieve the required reduction in
moisture content much quicker.

Timber defects

Defects in timber
whether natural or
caused during
conversion or
seasoning, will have
an effect on structural
strength as well as
fixing, stability,
durability and finished
appearance of timber

Types of defects

Natural defects occurs during growing period

Chemical defects- occurs when timber is used in
unsuitable positions or in association with other
materials. Timbers such as oak and western red
cedar contain tannic acid and other chemicals
which corrode metals.
Conversion defects due to unsound practice in the
use of milling techniques or to undue economy in
attempting to use every possible piece of timber
converted from trunk
Seasoning defects related to the movement occurs
in timber due to change in moisture

Seasoning Defects in
timber

Caused by differential drying out due to

uneven exposure to drying agents such as
wind, sun and applied heat can results in a
number of defects
Distortion due to
differential directional
shrinkage

Seasoning defects

Natural and conversion

defects

Density best single indicator of the properties of timber and major

factor determining its strength. Specific gravity or relative density is
a measure of timbers solid substance. Basic specific gravity of timber
is expressed at certain moisture content and generally ranges from
0.29 to 0.81.
Grain- often used in reference to annual rings and to indicate the
direction of fibers. Timber grain angle can be estimated by visual
inspection or using Scriber (MS554). grain is the longitudinal
direction of the main elements of timber, these main elements being
fibres or tracheids and vessels in the case of hardwood.
It can be done by seasoning in air for several days at room temp or
in a kiln. MC can be measured using weight difference method or
using moisture meter. MC can affect the physical and mechanical
properties of wood

Scriber-to determine slope of

grain

Slope of the
grain

Depends on the
way timber is cut

Slope of grain
Cont..

Variation due to :
Poor cutting
Irregular growth of
timber
The effect is lesser if
axially loading but
poor in bending
resistance

Axes directions (a) Principle direction and

rotation angle in Cartesian coordination for
uniaxial anisotropic timber (b) The direction of
principle axes for general anisotropic timber

Other factors

Position in tree and condition of

growth - high density near the butt
and near the pith and low near the top
and away from pith. Timber structure
from trees depends on soil type, tree
spacing, sunlight, temp
Defects