Minerals

Minerals:
Major and Trace
Major Minerals
sodium
chloride
potassium
calcium
phosphorus
magnesium
sulfur
Minerals in a 60-kilogram (132-pound) Human Body
MAJOR MINERALS
The major minerals are those present in amounts
larger than 5 g (a teaspoon). A pound is about
454 g; thus only calcium and phosphorus appear
in amounts larger than a pound.
TRACE MINERALS
There are more than a dozen trace minerals,
although only six are shown here.
Amount (g)
Sodium
fluid volume regulator, electrolyte
balancer
source
mostly in processed foods
deficiency
must be replaced with water if blood
sodium drops
toxicity
edema and hypertension
diet moderate in sodium is
recommended
Chloride
essential nutrient
fluid and electrolyte balance
abundant in foods (especially processed)
part of sodium chloride
rarely lacking
dehydration due to water deficiency
Potassium
maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance
affects homeostasis, such as a steady

heartbeat
found in both plant and animal cells
less found in processed foods
deficiency
hypertension
most common electrolyte imbalance
muscle weakness
toxicity
rare from food
over consumption of supplements
What Processing Does to

Sodium and Potassium Contents of Foods
Milks
Meats
Vegetables
Roast beef
Fresh corn
Chipped beef
Canned,
cream corn
Fruits
Grains
Unprocessed
Milk (whole)
Fresh peaches Rolled oats
Processed
Key:
Potassium
Sodium
Instant
pudding
Peach pie
Oat cereal
Calcium
most abundant mineral in body

bone structure, calcium bank
found primarily in milk and milk products
deficiency
limits mass & density
growing years
age related
silent, no signals
Milligrams
Food
Serving size (kcalories)
CALCIUM
As in the riboflavin figure, milk and milk products
Label(white)
dominate the calcium figure. Most people need at least three
selections from the milk group to meet recommendations.
a Values based on products containing added calcium salts;
the calcium in 12 c soybeans is about 13 as much as in
1 c tofu. b If bones are discarded, calcium declines
2
dramatically.
Key:
Breads and cereals
Vegetables
Fruits
Milk and milk products
Legumes, nuts, seeds
Meats
Best sources per kcalorie
Calcium in Selected Foods
AI for
women
1950
AI for
women
51+
AI for
men
1950
AI for
men
51+
Phosphorus
2nd most abundant
energy metabolism, transport lipids, cell
membranes
foods rich in protein, supply phosphorus
Milligrams
Food
RDA
for
adults
PHOSPHORUS
Protein-rich sources, such as
milk (white), meats (red), and
legumes (brown), provide
abundant phosphorus as well.
Key:
Breads and cereals
Vegetables
Fruits
Meats
Phosphorus in Selected Foods
Magnesium
minute amount, but critical

energy metabolism, catalyst, ATP
production
critical to heart function
ingestion of hard water may reduce
incidence of heart disease
toxicity is rare, but can be fatal
Milligrams
Food
RDA for
men
19-30
MAGNESIUM
Legumes (brown) are a rich
source of magnesium.
Key:
Breads and cereals
Vegetables
Fruits
Meats
RDA for
women
19-31
Magnesium in Selected Foods
Sulfur
sulfur is not used by the body
found in thiamin and several
amino acids
high sulfur content in
skin, hair, nails
Trace Minerals
iron
zinc
iodine
selenium
copper
manganese
fluoride
chromium
molybdenum
Trace Minerals
small amounts found in the body
small amounts needed
deficiency can be fatal, excess can be
deadly
TM are active in all body systems
content is dependent on soil and water
composition and processing
Iron
essential nutrient
mostly found in
hemoglobin
carrier of oxygen
myoglobin
protein in muscles, making oxygen
available
iron balance is critical
deficiency
fatigue and anemia
Iron
red meats, fish,
poultry, eggs,
legumes are good
sources
RDA for
women
1950
RDA for
women
51+
RDA
for
men
IRON
Meats (red), legumes (brown),
and some vegetables (green)
make the greatest contributions
of iron to the diet.
Key:
Breads and cereals
Vegetables
Fruits
Meats
Iron in Selected Foods
Zinc
cofactor for many enzymes affecting
growth and digestion
deficiency
growth retardation
sexual immaturity
impaired immune response
protein containing foods are a good source
of zinc
Micrograms RAE
Food

RDA
for
men
RDA
for
women
ZINC
Label
Meat, fish, and poultry
(red) are
concentrated sources of zinc.
Milk (white) and legumes
(brown) contain some zinc.
Key:
Breads and cereals
Vegetables
Fruits
Meats
Zinc in Selected Foods
Iodine
converted to iodide in GI tract
essential component of thyroid hormone
regulates temperature, reproduction,
growth, cell production
deficiency
goiter: enlarged thyroid gland
cretinism
during pregnancy
irreversible mental and physical
retardation
Iodine
worlds ocean and iodized salt are best
sources
Selenium
essential antioxidant nutrient
deficiency associated with heart disease
seafood, meats, whole grains, vegetables
dependent on soil content
toxicity
loss and brittleness of hair and nails
Copper
important player in several enzyme
reactions
deficiency is rare
food sources are legumes, whole grains,
nuts, shellfish, seeds
Manganese
cofactor for many enzymes that
metabolize carbs, lipids and amino acids
deficiency is rare
too much can affect the nervous system
found in nuts, whole grains, leafy veggies
Fluoride
presence makes
bones stronger
teeth more
resistant to tooth
decay
fluoridated water is
best source
most bottled water
is lacking
too much can
damage teeth
Key:
< 49%
50% 74%
> 75%
Chromium
essential nutrient involved in carb and lipid
metabolism
maintains glucose homeostasis
deficiency
creates diabetic like symptoms
sources include liver, whole grains, yeast
Molybdenum
cofactor for many enzymes
found in legumes, cereals, organ meat
Contaminant Minerals
heavy metals
lead
mercury
cadmium
enter food through water, soil, air pollution
interfere with nutrients
bioaccumulation
Remember to eat foods, not

nutrients
The Trace Minerals
Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning
The Trace Minerals
The Trace Minerals

Food sources
Deficiencies
Toxicities
Interactions
Iron
Ferrous (Fe++)
Reduced
Ferric (Fe+++)
Oxidized
Iron Absorption
Iron: Heme vs. Nonheme
Iron
Factors enhance nonheme iron
absorption
MFP factor
Vitamin C
Citric acid from
foods
Iron
Factors enhance nonheme iron
absorption
Lactic acid from foods
HCl from stomach
Sugars
Iron
Factors inhibit nonheme iron
absorption
Phytates
Fibers
Oxalates
Iron
Factors inhibit nonheme iron
absorption
Calcium
Phosphorus
EDTA
Tannic acid
Iron Recycling
Iron
High risk for iron deficiency
Women in their reproductive years
pregnant women
Infants and young children
Teenagers
Iron
Stages of iron deficiency
Iron stores diminish
Transport iron decreases
Hemoglobin production declines
Both size and

color are normal
in these blood
cells
Blood cells in
iron-deficiency
anemia are
small and pale
because they
contain less
hemoglobin
Iron
Contamination
iron
Iron
supplements
Iron: In Summary
2001 RDA
Men: 8 mg/day
Women (19-50 years): 18 mg/day
Women (51+ years): 8 mg/day
Upper level for adults: 45 mg/day
Iron: In Summary
Chief functions in the body
Part of the protein hemoglobin, which
carries oxygen in the blood
Part of the protein myoglobin in
muscles, which makes oxygen
available for muscle contraction
Necessary for the utilization of energy
as part of the cells metabolic
machinery
Iron: In Summary
Significant sources
Red meats, fish, poultry, shellfish,
eggs
Legumes, dried fruits
Iron: In Summary
Deficiency symptoms
Anemia: weakness, fatigue,
headaches
Impaired work performance and
cognitive function
Impaired immunity
Pale skin, nailbeds, mucous
membranes, and palm creases
Concave nails
Inability to regulate body
temperature
Pica
Iron: In Summary
Toxicity symptoms
GI distress
Iron overload: infections, fatigue,
joint pain, skin pigmentation, organ
damage
Zinc
Roles
Metalloenzymes
Absorption
Metallothionein
Zinc
Enteropancreatic circulation
Zinc
Zinc supplementation
Zinc: In Summary
2001 RDA
Men: 11 mg/day
Women: 8 mg/day
Zinc: In Summary
Part of many enzymes
Associated with the hormone insulin
Involved in making genetic material
and proteins, immune reactions,
transport of vitamin A, taste
perception, wound healing, the
making of sperm, and the normal
development of the fetus
Zinc
Significant
sources
Proteincontaining
foods
Red meats,
shellfish
Whole grains
Zinc
Deficiency
symptoms
Growth
retardation,
delayed sexual
maturation,
impaired immune
function, hair loss,
eye and skin
lesions, loss of
appetite
Zinc: In Summary
Toxicity symptoms
Loss of appetite, impaired immunity,
low HDL, copper and iron deficiencies
Iodine
Iodine vs. iodide
Deficiency
Goitrogens
Iodine: In Summary
2001 RDA for adults: 150 g/day
Upper level: 1100 g/day
A component of two thyroid
hormones that help to regulate
growth, development, and metabolic
rate
Iodine: In Summary
Significant sources
Iodized salt, seafood, bread,
dairy products, plants grown in
iodine-rich soil and animals fed
those plants
Deficiency disease
Simple goiter
Cretinism
Iodine: In Summary
Deficiency symptoms
Underactive thyroid gland, goiter
Mental and physical retardation in
infants (cretinism)
Toxicity symptoms
Underactive thyroid gland, elevated
TSH, goiter
Selenium
Upper level for adults: 400 g/day
Defends against oxidation
Regulates thyroid hormone
Significant sources
Seafood, meat
Whole grains, vegetables (depending
on soil content)
Selenium
Deficiency symptoms
Predisposition to heart disease
characterized by cardiac tissue
becoming fibrous (Keshan disease)
Toxicity symptoms
Loss and brittleness of hair and nails
Skin rash, fatigue, irritability, and
nervous system disorders
Garlic breath odor
Copper
Upper level for adults:
10,000 g/day (10 mg/day)
Necessary for absorption and use of
iron in the formation of hemoglobin
Part of several enzymes
Copper
Significant sources
Seafood
Nuts, whole grains, seeds, legumes
Deficiency symptoms
Anemia, bone abnormalities
Toxicity symptoms
Liver damage
Manganese
2001 AI
Men: 2.3 mg/day
Women: 1.8 mg/day

Cofactor for several enzymes
Manganese
Significant sources
Nuts, whole grains, leafy vegetables,
tea
Deficiency symptoms
Rare
Toxicity symptoms
Nervous system disorders
Fluoride
1997 AI
Men: 3.8 mg/day
Women: 3.1 mg/day

Involved in the formation of bones
and teeth
Helps to make teeth resistant to
decay
U.S.
Population
With
Fluoridated
Water
Fluoride
Significant sources
Drinking water (if fluoride containing
or fluoridated)
Tea, seafood
Deficiency symptoms
Susceptibility to tooth decay
Toxicity symptoms
Fluorosis (pitting and discoloration of
teeth)
Chromium
2001 AI
Men: 35 g/day
Women: 25 g/day

Enhances insulin action
Significant sources
Meats (especially liver)
Whole grains, brewers yeast
Chromium
Deficiency symptoms
Diabetes-like condition
Toxicity symptoms
None reported
Molybdenum
2001 AI for adults: 45 g/day
Cofactor for several enzymes
Significant sources
Legumes, cereals
Organ meats
Molybdenum
Deficiency symptoms
Unknown
Toxicity symptoms
None reported
Reproductive effects in animals
Other Trace Minerals

Nickel
Silicon
Vanadium
Other Trace
Minerals
Cobalt
Boron
Arsenic
Contaminant Minerals
Heavy metals
Lead
Phytochemicals And
Functional Foods
Phytochemicals And
Functional Foods
Phytochemicals And
Functional Foods
Defending against cancer
Defending against heart disease
Functional
foods...
from nature
from
manufacturers
Phytochemicals And
Functional Foods
Functional foods
Inconclusive research
Food labels
Safety
Overall healthfulness of products
Medical Chemistry (1st year)
Lecture I
MUDr. Vlastimil Kulda
Textbooks
General and Inorganic Chemistry for Medical Students

Basic Organic Chemistry for Medical Students
Medical Chemistry Laboratory Manual
Web pages
Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen
www.lfp.cuni.cz
Department of Medical Chemistry and Biochemistry
www.lfp.cuni.cz/biochemie
Chemistry
- science studying the properties and behavior of matter
Matter - physical material of the universe

- anything that has mass and occupies space
States of matter: 1) gas
(no fixed volume or shape)
2) liquid
(distinct volume but no specific shape)
3) solid
(both definite shape and volume)
Pure substance matter that has fixed composition and

distinct properties (sodium chloride, water)
2 categories of substances:
Elements cannot be decomposed by chemical methods

into simpler substances (carbon, oxygen, iron)
= consist of one kind of atoms
Compounds contain two or more kinds of atoms

(water H2O sodium chloride NaCl)
Structure of the atom
atom the smallest particle of an element having

its chemical properties
("atomos" in old Greek language = "indivisible")
3 types of subatomic (elementary)
particles:
PROTONS
NEUTRONS
ELECTRONS
"nucleons"
Particle
Symbol
Relative charge
Relative mass
Proton
positive +1
Neutron
Electron
negative -1
negligible *
relative mass expressed in "atomic mass units"
(relative atomic mass, relative molecular mass)

atomic mass unit = 1/12 of the mass of an atom of the carbon isotope 12C
(1.66 x 10-24 g)
* mass of the electron = only 1/1836 of the mass of the proton
Atoms have no overall charge

==>
number of protons = number of electrons

This number is different for every element !
= ATOMIC number ( Z )
Element = mixture of atoms with the same number of protons
(the atomic number)
The chemical properties of any given element are determined by
the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus.
Every atom is characterized by 2 numbers:
Atomic number (Z)
= number of protons
- it determines the element = symbol: C, N, Fe
Mass (nucleon) number (A)
= number of nucleons
(protons + neutrons)
mass number
atomic number
12
6
symbol of element
Nuclide - specific atomic number Z and mass number A

for example:
12
6C
238
92
- most elements are mixtures of different nuclides !

(same atomic number, different mass numbers)
= same number of protons, variation in number of neutrons
= ISOTOPES of an element
------------------------------------------------------------------Term "nuclide" - more general
- used: only one nucleus or several nuclei of different elements
Term "isotope" - used when referring to several different nuclides of the same
element
Isotopes of hydrogen
neutrons
proton
1
1
2
1
hydrogen
3
1
deuterium (D)
tritium (T)
The isotopes of an element have a different number of NEUTRONS

-identical chemical properties
water
H2O
"heavy water"
D2O
Isotopes of carbon
12
6
13
6
14
6
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Certain isotopes of some elements are radioactive !

Radioactive decay = unstable atomic nucleus "loses energy" by emitting:
particle
4
2
particle
0
-1
g
14
6
half life 5730 years
14
7
He
e
rays ( = high-energy photon)

0
-1
+ antineutrino
Electrons
- surround the nucleus in energy levels (shells, orbits)
1 electron
6 electrons
15 electrons
The chemical reactions = interaction of electrons
from the OUTERMOST orbit
Arrangement of electrons in the atom

4 quantum numbers:
1) n
principle quantum number
- determines energy level

- positive integral values 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
K, L, M, N, ...
2) l
orbital quantum number
- determines the shape of electron cloud

- values from 0 to (n-1) 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
s p d f
3) m
magnetic quantum number
- determines orientation of electron cloud

in space
- integral values from l to +l
4) s
spin
- determines the intrinsic state of an electron

- only 2 possible values: + or -
The s orbitals

l=0
magnetic quantum number m = 0 (only possib.)
in each s orbital can be only 2 electrons
(with different SPIN)
1s
1s1
1s
1s2
spherical
The p orbitals
two lobes

l=1
m = -1
in each p orbitals can be 2 x 3 = 6 electrons
2p
2p2
2p
2p6
The d orbitals

l=2
m = -2 -1
in each d orbitals can be 2 x 5 = 10 electrons
3d
3d7
Rules that must be respected

1) The lowest energy levels are
occupied first.
2) Hunds rule:
No electron pairing in p, d, f
orbitals until each orbital of given
set contains one electron.
3) Pauli exclusion principle:
No TWO electrons in any given
atom can have exactly the same
set of all 4 quantum numbers.
Electron configuration of several elements

Electrons
Orbital diagram
1s2 2s1
1s2 2s2
1s2 2s2 2p1
1s2 2s2 2p2

1s2 2s2 2p3
1s2 2s2 2p6
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
The periodic properties of the elements

The elements with similar arrangement (configuration) of electrons
in the outer (superficial) shell have SIMILAR CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Periodic table
Dmitri Mendeleyev (1869) - Russian chemist
- elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number
horizontal rows = PERIODS
vertical columns = GROUPS
elements in groups: the same number of electrons in outermost orbits
= similar chemical properties
Names for some of the groups

Group
Name
Elements
IA
Alkali metals
Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
II A
Alkaline earth metals
Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
VI A
Chalcogens
O, S, Se, Te, Po
VII A
Halogens
F, Cl, Br, I
Noble (rare, inert) gases
He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
VIII A (0)
Chemical bonding
Covalent bond
- sharing of one or more pairs of electrons
Coordinate covalent bond - both electrons of the bond belong to one

atom, the other has empty orbital
Ionic bond - big difference of electronegativities

- IONS attracted by electrostatic forces
Na+ Cl-
Hydrogen bonding
a weak electrostatic interaction between partly (+) charged hydrogen
atom and partly (-) charged another atom (O, N, F)
R
N
R
H bonds
(+)
(-)
H ............. O
R
C
vodkov mstek
important in stabilizing the structures of: PROTEINS

NUCLEIC ACIDS
The EARTH
Core (inner, outer)

Mantle
Crust
Crust
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere
93 %
7%
0.03 %
0.001 %
The elementary composition (%)

Earth crust
Human body
49.5
62.4
Si
25.7
Al
7.5
Fe
4.7
0.005
0.9
9.8
0.12
1.0
0.09
21.1
0.06
0.16
0.03
3.1
- elementary composition of the human body is very different

from that of lithosphere
Specific selection of some elements for the biological uses

% in human body
% in the Earth crust
C
243
103
11
2.7
1.26
Fe
0.001
Al
0.000 13
Si
0.000 04
- some chemical elements (C, H, N, O, ...) are "better" than

others to make up molecules of living organisms
- most abundant elements of the Earth core:
Fe, Ni
- most abundant elements of the Earth crust:
O, Si, Al, Fe
- most abundant elements in living organisms:
O, C, H, N
- oxygen is the most abundant element both on the Earth surface

and in human body
The atmosphere of the Earth
Composition of the AIR

Water vapour
1-4%
The dry air (by volume)

Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Carbon dioxide
All others
78 %
21 %
0.93 %
0.038 %
only trace amounts
The geological development of the atmosphere

the loss of very light gases ( H2
the increase of O2
20th centrury - slight increase of CO2
burning of coal, gas, oil

destruction of forests and phytoplankton
current levels
0.0296 %
0.0385 %
CH4 )
(photolysis of water by the green plants)
fixation of CO2 by photosynthesis
1900
He
296 ppm
385 ppm
The greenhouse effect

CO2 is a "greenhouse gas" - global warming
The oxygen cycle

O2
Animals, plants
RESPIRATION
CO2
H2O
We need per day:
air
water
food
Plants
PHOTOLYSIS of H2O
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
15 000 l [ 13.5 kg ]
2 kg
1.2 kg
Comparison of inspired and expired air

Inspired
Expired
O2
21 %
15 %
CO2
0.03 %
5%
N2
78 %
78 %
CO2 is a waste product

of respiration
Air pollution
Emissions = the pollutants released into the environment
Pollution
natural
industrial
Natural sources
Volcano eruptions
Dust storms
Fires
Lightnings
Biological decomposition
dust
dust
dust
NO
CO2
ash
SO2
ash CO2 CO
NO2
H2S NH3 CH4
Dust particles water condensation CLOUDS, RAIN

Impact of big meteor heavy dust pollution of atmosphere
climate changes
( extinction of giant reptiles in mesozoic era ? )
Industrial sources
The progress of civilization global air pollution
(overcharging of the natural cycles of regeneration and detoxication)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
dust ashes
Sulphur dioxide ( SO2 )
Nitrogen oxides ( NOx )
Carbon oxides ( CO2 CO )
Toxic metals
Organic compounds
Particulate matter - dust, ashes

complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets
sources: power plants, industrial and agriculture processes, transport, home
effects: irritation of respiratory system
contains adsorbed number of components: toxic metals, SO2
cancerogenic hydrocarbons
the size of particles is directly linked to their potential for causing
health problems - smaller than 10 m pass through the airways
and enter the lung !
SMOG [ smoke + fog ]
"London smog"
HELP: industry, power plants - electrostatic precipitation

home - no burning of coal and peat
- using gas or oil, solar energy
Limit: 150 g / m2 /year
Sulphur dioxide
SO2
main source: burning of soft coal ( 1 % S as sulphides of Fe )

Europe 1980: 40 000 000 tons of SO2
( bound to fly ash )
irritation of respiratory system, rhinitis, laryngitis

SO2 + H2O H2SO3
SO2
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
sulphurous acid (weak acid)

sulphuric acid
(strong acid)
ACID RAIN
pH ~ 4
acidification of soil solution of minerals Al3+ Pb2+ Cu2+ ...
intoxication of plants and animals
green plants: CO2 x SO2 competition destruction of photosynthetic enzymes
(damage of pine forests)
Sulphur dioxide
SO2
"Safe" limit: 0.15 mg / m3

Short time limit (up to 30 min./day) 0.5 mg / m3
HELP: Power plants: soft coal + CaCO3
CaSO4 ("gypsum")
OR
SO2
+ Ca(OH)2 CaSO4
Acid soil: + CaCO3

+ Ca(OH)2
("limestone")
("lime water")
Nitrogen oxides
NO
NOx
limit: 0.1 mg / m3
NO2
brown haze
sources: motor vehicles, power plants, chemical industry

secondary pollutants:
OZONE ( O3 )
PAN = peroxyacylnitrates
sun light
NO2
NO + O
Photochemical smog
( "Los Angeles type" smog )
O2 + O
O3
O3 + hydrocarbons
aldehydes
(car exhausts)
+ NO2
PAN
very irritating to eyes

and respiratory system
"London type" smog

combustion of coal
= smoke + fog
emission of sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) and dust
+ mixed with FOG
"Los Angeles type" smog

dry air + sunny days
+ NOx
+ volatile organic gases
(emitted by automobiles)
= photochemical smog
Carbon dioxide CO2

colorless, odorless gas
"overproduction" sources: burning of fossil fuels
air: 0.038 %
higher levels stimulate breathing
long time respiration of 5 % CO2 respiration troubles
> 15 % DEATH
Danger: old mines, caves, wine cellars
(heavier than air it tends to go down)
Carbon monoxide CO
colorless, odorless gas
sources: car exhausts, incomplete burning (smouldering)
local street pollution dangerous level: 10 ppm / 8 hours
TOXIC: very high affinity to HEMOGLOBIN
35 ppm / 1 hour
carbonylhemoglobin
impaired ability of the blood to transport O2 oxygen deprivation

drowsiness unconsciousness DEATH
Toxic heavy metals

Lead
Pb
- tetraethyllead was used as antiknock agent in gasoline

(organometallic compound)
Pb (CH2CH3)4
neurotoxic
PbO (lead oxide aerosol)

deposition in the vicinity of highways
toxic effects of inorganic lead compounds: impaired heme synthesis anemia
Toxic metals aerosol As, Pb, Cd, Hg, ... oxides bound to ash particulate matter
- source: power plants ( COAL ! ), smelters
- general toxicity decrease of vitality
Organic compounds
Hydrocarbons motor vehicles, industry, cigarette smoke ( TAR )
- carcinogens, precursors to PAN
Freons - hydrocarbons with hydrogen atoms substituated by F, Cl

= chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs )
- in older refrigeration and air-conditioning systems
- effect: destroying the ozone layer in the stratosphere
Indoor air pollution

Respiration CO2
( H2O)
Digestion (intestinal bacteria) H2S

Gas stove CO2
CO
indole
( H2O)
Tobacco smoke TAR (cancerogens)
Formaldehyde
Radon
Rn
HCHO
nicotine
- released from foamed insulation

tapestry
plywood adhesives
- radioactive gas
- radon from natural sources can accumulate in buildings
222
86
Rn
4
2 He
218
84
Po
Water
non-bonding electron pairs
H2O
105o
bent molecule
d-
polar character
O
H
d+
d+
electrical dipole
Hydrogen bonding
-
attractions between water molecules
+
+
0 oC
3.6
/ H2O
HIGH melting point

boiling point
specific heat
heat of vaporization
surface tension
H bonds - much weaker than covalent bonds !

bond energy of H-bonds in liquid water: about 19 kJ/mol
( covalent H O bond in water: 460 kJ/mol )
water is most dense at 3.98 C !!!
(when freezing, ice will form first on the surface)
WATER - very good solvent !

Attraction between
water dipoles and ions
"hydrated ions"
Dispersing "amphipathic" molecules
"micelles"
"Amphipathic" molecules contain both highly hydrophobic

and highly polar groups
palmitic acid
non-polar chain = hydrophobic
polar group = hydrophilic
(water-fearing)
(water-loving)
Phospholipids
phosphatidylcholine
(lecithin)
polar groups
Water in human body

~ 60 % of the body weight
intracellular ~ 40 %
extracellular ~ 20 %
PLASMA
5%
interstitial fluid 15 %
- a very complex solution of inorganic & organic components

Phosphates
Proteins
K+
Na+ Mg2+
Na+
Cl-
Na+
K+
Ca2+
HCO3-
Mg2+
Phosphates
K+
Na+/K+ pump
( = Na+/K+ -ATPase )
Blood plasma
( extracellular fluid )
Cell fluid (cytosol)

( intracellular fluid )
Human blood plasma

mmol/l
Na+
132 145
K+
3.8 - 5.2
Ca*
2.1 2.6
Mg2+
0.8 1.1
Cl-
97 108
HCO3-
22 26
Phosphates
HPO42- + H2PO4-
0.6 1.6
pH = 7.36 7.44
* Ca "total Ca"
Ca2+ "ionized" is about of "total" ~ 1.2 mmol/l
Colligative properties of solutions

- dependent on the number of solute particles
the same effect

Effects of a solute on a solvent:
depression of the freezing point
elevation of the boiling point
depression of the vapour pressure
osmotic pressure
osmolality = moles of solute particles dissolved in 1 kg of solvent
( osmolality of blood plasma: 285 mmol/kg )
Water balance
Intake: ~ 1.5 - 2.0 l / day
metabolic water (produced in human body by oxidation of food) 0.3 0.5 l /day
Resorption: stomach, small intestine, LARGE INTESTINE
Secretion:
Excretion:
Saliva
Stomach
Bile
Pancreas
Small intestine
1 500 ml / day
2 500
500
700
3 000
Urine 60 %
Skin
20 % (perspiration)
Lungs 15 %
Faeces 5 %
8 200 ml /day
Water in nature
Hardness of water:
Temporary hardness:
Boiling:
technical problems deposits after boiling

cause = Ca(HCO3)2
Ca(HCO3)2
soluble in water
CaCO3 + CO2
+ H2O
Softening water in water stations:
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2
2 CaCO3 + 2 H2O
Permanent hardness: cause = CaCl2 CaSO4 ...

softening: CaSO4 + Na2CO3
CaCO3 + Na2SO4
Biological pollution of water

urine, excrements, dead bodies
BACTERIAL decomposition (most efficiently by aerobic bacteria)
I. organic compounds: UREA, proteins, peptides
II. NH3
III. NO2-
markers of
RECENT pollution
ammonia
NO3-
- final decomposition products

- good for plant nutrition
EUTROPHICATION of water
- fertilizers, phosphates
(compounds of N, P)
The bioelements (summary)

1)
Principal bioelements:
O, C, N, H, P, S
( biomolecules: proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, saccharides )
2)
Water and ions ( H2O ) Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl-, ( HCO3- , phosphates)
3)
Mineral constituents of bones and teeth Ca (Mg, Na)

PO43- CO32- ( F- Cl- )
4)
Microelements (trace elements)
Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, I, F, Se, ...
-------------------------------------------------------5)
Contamination (intoxication):
Hg, Al, ...
Lecture II
Biological membranes
- separate the cells
separate the spaces (compartments) of the cell
cell membrane
mitochondria
nucleus
lysosome
endoplasmic reticulum
Phospholipid BILAYER
hydrophilic
hydrophobic
hydrophilic
phospholipids
cholesterol
PROTEINS - enzymes
SELECTIVE permeability
(membrane = barrier)
- receptors
- transport systems
The flow of molecules and ions between the cell and environment is
precisely regulated by SPECIFIC TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
They regulate cell volume, ionic composition, pH
They concentrate metabolic fuels and building blocks from the environment
The extrude toxic substances
They generate IONIC GRADIENTS essential for the excitability
Transport across membrane

1) Passive transport
"channels"
2) Active transport
"pumps"
- does not involve energy

- diffusion from high to low concentration
- uses energy (ATP)

- can transport against the concentration gradient
- one direction, high specificity
ATP
3) Secondary active transport - no direct need of energy

- gradient created by active transport is used !
Passive transport
concentration and
electrochemical
GRADIENT
1
1) Simple diffusion
toward equilibrium
small molecule, NO charge, solubility in lipids !
O2
CO2
2) Ion channels - pore-forming proteins

- can be "GATED"
"gate" is closed
3) Facilitated diffusion ("carrier proteins")
"gate" is open
- selective !
- large molecules, insoluble in lipids
Ion transport antibiotics

Gramicidin
- peptide: 15 amino acids
HELIX - hydrophilic groups inside

"wet channel"
- lipophilic groups outside
increase of the permeability of bacterial cell wall

inorganic ions can travel through
equilibration of concentrations = NO GRADIENT
"wide wet pore"
Valinomycin
hydrophillic groups INSIDE = "WET cave"
hydrophobic (lipophillic) groups OUTSIDE
( = soluble in lipids of membrane)
K+
highly selective carrier for
K+
K+
( Na+ with water coating is too big)
equilibration of K+ concentration = NO GRADIENT
K+
Valinomycin
hydrophillic groups
hydrophobic (lipophillic) groups
Active transport = PUMPS

Transport against
GRADIENT
ENERGY !
ATP
ADP + Pi
Na+/K+ ATPase
(sodium potassium pump)
ATP
INHIBITION:
cardiotonic steroids
2 K+
3 Na+
Na+/K+ ATPase
in cell membrane of EVERY human cell !
electrogenic = transfers 3 Na+ out and ONLY 2 K+ into the cell
inner side of the membrane
inhibitors of this pump:
outer side of the membrane
cardiotonic steroids = cardiac glykosides

(oubain, digoxin)
treatment of heart failure, cardiac arrhytmia
Digitalis purpurea
(foxglove)
H+/K+ ATPase
stomach gastric acid
CO2
HCl
CO2 + H2O
*
H2CO
* carboanhydrase Zn2+
HCO3-
H+ Cl-
K+
ATP
HCO3- + H+
Clblood pH = 7.4
parietal cell
107 increase of H+ concentration !
lumen of the stomach

pH = 1 - 2
Secondary active transport
"COTRANSPORT"
Na+ dependent transport of glucose, aminoacids, Ca2+

"energy" = Na+ gradient generated by Na+/K+ ATPase
Na+
glucose
SYMPORT
ANTIPORT
Na+
Ca2+
Na+ - glucose symport
glucose
glucose
Na+
K+
Na+
ATP
proximal tubulus of each nephron in the kidneys resorption of glucose

intestines resorption of glucose from GI tract
Na+/Ca2+ antiport = sodiumcalcium EXCHANGER
Ca2+
Ca2+
Na+
K+
Ca2+ ATPase
Na+/Ca2+ exchanger
Na+
ATP
very low concentration of Ca2+ in cytosol
Endocytosis
Large (polar) molecules cannot pass through the hydrophobic membrane
phagocytosis - cell ingests large object such as bacteria
pinocytosis - uptake of solutes and molecules such as proteins
receptor-mediated endocytosis specific !
LDL receptor
chylomicron remnant receptor

receptors that mediates endocytosis of
blood plasma lipoproteins
cell absorbs material by engulfing it with its own membrane
Exocytosis
= the opposite of endocytosis
Exocytosis is needed for:
- secretion of large molecules from cells: glands peptide hormones
B cells antibodies
- neuronal chemical synapses: realease of the neurotransmitter

receptor
vesicles with
neurotransmitter
synaptic cleft
Water transport across membranes

Water moves by "simple diffusion" through membranes
Additional mechanism for water transport:
AQUAPORINS
"water channels"
Water transport - due to osmotic differences (osmotic gradient)
OSMOSIS
high osmolality
H2O
low osmolality
The bioelements (summary)

1)
Principal bioelements:
O, C, N, H, P, S
( biomolecules: proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, saccharides )
2)
Water and ions ( H2O ) Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl-, ( HCO3- , phosphates)
3)
Mineral constituents of bones and teeth Ca (Mg, Na)

PO43- CO32- ( F- Cl- )
4)
Microelements (trace elements)
Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, I, F, Se, ...
-------------------------------------------------------5)
Contamination (intoxication):
Hg, Al, ...
Elements of group I
IA
Alkali
metals
IB
Hydrogenium
Cu
Cuprum
Li
Lithium
Ag
Argentum
Na
Natrium
Au
Aurum
Kalium
Rb
Cs
Fr
Alkali metals - very reactive
- react with air O2 and H2O

- must be stored under oil
Hydrogen
biogenic element - it is present in almost all organic compounds !

H2O
H+ = proton ( H3O+ )
pH = - log [H+]
The pH scale
acidic solutions
7
neutral
alkaline (basic) sol. 14
water is weakly ionized:
H+ + OH-
H2O
KW = [H+] x [OH-] = 10-14 mol2 / l2
ionic product of water
pH + pOH = 14
pure water: [H+] = [OH-] = 10-7 mol/l
pH = pOH = 7
----------------------------------------------------------------------Strong acids - fully ionised: monobasic acid: HCl

dibasic acid: H2SO4
Weak acids do not disociate completely:

Strong bases: NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Weak base: NH4OH
CH3COOH
H+ + Cl2 H+ + SO42H+ + CH3COO-
human blood plasma:
pH = 7.40
+
-
0.04
gastric juice: pH = 1 2
pancreatic juice: pH = ~ 8
----------------------------------------------------H+
very low concentration in blood plasma !!!
pH = 7.40
H+ = 0.000 040 mmol/l (40 nmol/l)

(Na+ 142 mmol/l
K+ 4.5 mmol/l)
extreme influence of H+ on biological systems !!!

ionisation of functional groups in PROTEINS
Ionisation of amino acids
Lithium
compounds:
LiCl
Li2CO3
Li
crimson (red) colour of flame
Therapy of manic-depressive psychosis (bipolar affective disorder)

= alternating periods of mania (euphoria) and depression
The manic phase
- increased activity, decresased need for sleep

- persistent elevated mood
- impaired normal functioning !
The depressive phase - lack of energy

- pessimistic
- self-destructive behavior (risk of suicide !)
Li+ changes of ion transport in CNS
- still in use
"mood stabilizing agent"
Lithium mineral water therapy of GOUT (type of arthritis)

(Li-urate more soluble than uric acid)
Uric acid - in humans - the end product of purine catabolism

OH
N
N
HO
OH
NH
- poorly soluble in water

- lithium urate more soluble !
Sodium
Na+
Na
(Natrium)
the main EXTRAcellular cation
(132 145 mmol/l)
Na+ strongly binds water

ionic diameter: Na+
K+
!!! in hydrated form: Na+ larger in diameter than K+
Na+ ( together with Cl- ) large fraction of osmotic pressure (osmolality)

of body fluids
Water and Na balance are closely interdependent !
NaCl
daily intake: 5 15 g
Elimination:
urine (95 %)
sweat (perspiration)
stool
food (common salt)
Kidney
Glomerular
filtration
BLOOD
Glomerular filtrate (180 l H2O / day)

[ 1.5 kg NaCl ]
Tubular
resorption
dependent on hormones
(aldosteron, ADH)
URINE
2 l H2 O
5 15g NaCl
Hormones regulating tubular resorption

Aldosteron
- steroid hormone (mineralocorticoid)

- produced in the adrenal gland (adrenal cortex)
- acting in the distal tubule of the kidney nephron:
reabsorption of Na+ into blood
secretion of K+ into urine
Vasopressin = antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - peptide hormone

- synthesized in the hypothalamus, released into
blood in the pituitary gland (posterior part)
- ADH increases the permeability of the collecting duct to water
allows water reabsorption small volume of concentrated urine

deficiency of ADH: DIABETES INSIPIDUS - polyuria
- excretion of large amounts of diluted urine ( 10 20 l /day !)
Potassium
K+
the main INTRAcellular cation
(Kalium)
(cytosol > 100 mmol/l)
- human blood plasma: only 3.8 - 5.2 mmol/l

- daily intake: ~ 4g of KCl
excretion: URINE
-
proper concentrations of K+ and Na+ functions of membranes

"membrane potential"
most cells membrane potential relatively stable
neurons, muscle cells use changes of membrane potential for function !
(nervous system communication between neurons)
action potential
Na+/K+ ATPase
EXTRAcellular fluid
cell membrane
INTRAcellular fluid
3Na+
2K+
Ion channels
Na+
ATP !
2K+
K+
rising phase = depolarisation
ACTION POTENTIAL
falling phase = repolarisation
resting potential
In cells K+ is bound to GLYCOGEN !

Diabetic coma
glucose in blood )
insulin
Glycogen synthesis
Binding of K+ in cells
Plasma K+ depletion
HEART failure !!!
Copper
Cu
(Cuprum)
microelement (in human body 100 - 150 mg)

dietary intake: ~ 2 mg / day
Cu2+ - cofactor of some enzymes:
cytochrom c oxidase
(metalloenzymes)
superoxide dismutase
- cofactor of HEME biosynthesis
CERULOPLASMIN - transport of Cu2+ in blood plasma ( 8 Cu2+ / mol. )

- a2 globulin synthesized in the liver
- enzymatic activity: Fe2+ Fe3+
WILSONs DISEASE
(hepatolenticular degeneration)
- accumulation of copper in tissues

- low ceruloplasmin levels
- hereditary disease
- neurological symptoms, liver disease
CuSO4 . 5 H2O
copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate

= "blue vitriol"
- in Fehlings solution (detection of glucose in urine)
copper salts - poisonous !

-------------------------------------------
Hemocyanins - Cu2+ containing proteins

- O2 transport - MOLLUSCA (snail, clam, mussel, ...)
- ARTHROPODA (crabs)
Silver
precious metal
Ag
( + H 2S
(Argentum)
Ag2S black ! )
AgBr - photosensitive photography

------------------------------------------------------------------
Ag - useful in dental alloys for fittings and fillings

( Ag + Hg amalgam )
AgNO3 - caustic effect treatment of warts

Bartholins gland abscess in women
(removal: silver nitrate stick insertion)
- diluted solution: antiseptic properties it was dropped into newborns eyes

to prevent gonococcal conjuntivitis !
(Gonorrhoea is a venereal disease caused by the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae)
Gold
precious metal
Au
(Aurum)
chemically and biologically resistent, inert
in nature almost exclusively in the native state

pure gold soft !
in jewellery: alloys (+ Cu, + Ag) harder

The gold content of gold alloys
in carats or in thousandths
pure gold: 24 carats = 1000/1000
The standard for high quality jewellery: 18 carats = 750 / 1000
What is the gold content (g) of a 100 g piece marked 18 carats?
18
24
x 100g = 75 g
Elements of group II
II A
Alkaline
earth
metals
II B
Be
Beryllium
Zn
Zincum
Mg
Magnesium
Cd
Cadmium
Ca
Calcium
Hg
Hydrargyrum
Ba
Barium
Sr
Strontium
Ra
Magnesium
Mg
PLANTS: Mg2+ - central atom of green pigment CHLOROPHYLL

(photosynthesis)
in human body: ~ 20 g Mg
> in bones ( Ca-Mg phosphates )
intracellular cation
Mg2+ activates number of enzymes !!!
ENZYMES using ATP

"kinases"
hexokinase
glucose
glucose6phosphate
ATP
ADP
(Enzymes of ATP-dependent reactions require Mg2+ as cofactor)
other effects of Mg2+:
anti-convulsive effect
(MgSO4 - prevention of eclamptic convulsions)
influence on neuromuscular excitability
can help to prevent kidney and gall stones
"duodenal reflex" - MgSO4 delivered into the region of the sphincter of Oddi
relaxation of the sphincter + contraction of the gallbladder
expulsion of bile to intestine
( the bile release from the gallbladder is stimulated by Mg2+ )

Magnesium mineral water (Karlovy Vary) purgative effect
Calcium
CaCO3
"burning"
limestone,
chalk
CaO + H2O
Ca
CaO + CO2
quicklime
"slaking"
Ca(OH)2
slaked lime
Hardening of mortar:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2
CaCO3 + H2O
Calcium
Ca
in human body ~ 1 kg (99% in bones, teeth)

dietary intake: 800 - 1200 mg / day
human blood plasma: "total Ca"
(extracellular !)
ionized Ca2+
2.5 mmol/l
1.2 mmol/l
resorption: ileum specific protein carrier

~ 200 mg / day
excretion: urine
liver
bile
feces
Mineral constituents of bones and teeth

Ca
PO43Hydroxyapatite
Ca5 (PO4)3 OH
Ffluoroapatite
enamel
dentin
cementum
pulp
Enamel: - hardest substance of the body

water
1-3 %
organic comp.
1%
mineral
> 95 %
(bones ~ 60 %)
Hormones regulating Ca metabolism

Parathormone - peptide hormone ( 84 amino acids )
- secreted by parathyreoid glands
PTH
- activation of bone mineral degradation

Ca2+ release from bones
- stimulation of Ca2+ readsorption in kidney
- stimulation of calcitriol formation (kidneys)
- stimulation of Ca-resorption protein formation (ileum)
Ca2+
in blood
Calcitonin
- peptide hormone ( 32 amino acids )

- produced by parafollicular cell of the thyreoid gland
- inhibition of bone mineral degradation
(decrease of osteoclasts activity)
- stimulation of Ca2+ excretion in kidney
Ca2+
in blood
Salmon calcitonin is used for the treatment of OSTEOPOROSIS
Calcitriol
= 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol
- active form of Dvitamin
- stimulation of Ca-resorption protein formation
absorption of calcium from the gastrointestinal tract
PTH
Ca FOOD (protein-bound)
ILEUM
Ca-resorption protein
calcitriol
calcitonin
PLASMA
BONES
PTH
PTH
URINE
Ca 2.5 mmol/l
Ca2+ 1.2 mmol/l
calcitonin
calcitriol
milk
excrements
Ca2+ increase
PTH release inhibition
Very low concentration of Ca2+ in cytoplasma
10-6 mol/l
MUSCLE - Ca2+ is stored in sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
CALSEQUESTRIN = calcium-binding protein of the SR

40 Ca2+ binding sites
Ca2+ in cytoplasma can cause the specific action of the cell:
MUSCLES contraction
Ca2+ = important SECOND MESSENGER
endoplasmic reticulum
SIGNAL
release of Ca2+
EFFECT
Clotting of BLOOD
Intrinsic pathway
Extrinsic pathway
(Contact activation pathway)
(Tissue factor pathway)
Xa
Prothrombin
Thrombin
Fibrinogen
Fibrin
Ca2+ is required for the proper function of the coagulation CASCADE
Removing of Ca2+ = NO clotting !

Anticoagulants - bind Ca2+ ions
( "in vitro" = outside the body)
Oxalate
COO COO -
Citric acid
Ca2+
COO
Ca
COO
EDTA = ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
Gypsum, plaster of Paris
CaSO4 . 2 H2O
heating
CaSO4 . 1/2 H2O

+ H 2O
hardening
CaSO4 . 2 H2O
When the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it re-forms into gypsum
bandage impregnated with plaster = support for broken bones
Strontium Sr
- similar to Ca2+ incorporation in BONES
(naturally present in bones in trace amounts)
- new treatment for osteoporosis: "Strontium ranelate"
(improves bone density and strenght)
excess: Strontium rickets

radioisotope
90
Sr
bone marrow irradiation
LEUKEMIA
half life 28 years
(important isotope regarding health impacts after the Chernobyl disaster)
radioisotope
89
Sr
half life 50 days
- treatment of bone cancer
Barium Ba
toxic heavy metal
water-soluble compounds
[ Ba(NO3)2 BaCl2 ]
- strongly neurotoxic
- painful cramps, tremor
BaSO4 (barium sulphate)

- almost insoluble in water !
- radiocontrast agent for X-ray imaging
( "barium meal" )
- imaging of the gastrointestinal tract
large intestine
Zinc
microelement
Zn
(Zincum)
dietary intake: 12 -15 mg / day
cofactor of many ENZYMES:

carboxypeptidase - protein digestion
carbonic anhydrase
H2O + CO2
H2CO3
H+ + HCO3-
alcohol dehydrogenase - oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde

NAD+
CH3CH2OH
NADH+H+
CH3CHO
Insulin binds ZINC !
"Zn insulin hexamers"
Metallothionein - protein synthesized in kidneys rich of -SH groups

- can bind metals ( Zn2+ Cd2+ .... )
- zinc transport, heavy metal detoxification (Hg2+) ?
Zinc is an essential nutrient for proper sperm production !
-----------------------------------------------compounds used in medicine:
ZnO - a basis of powders, pastes, creams

( in DERMATOLOGY )
dental fillings (cements):
Zn3(PO4)2 . 4 H2O
"hopeit"
Cadmium Cd
toxic heavy metal
metallothionein strongly binds Cd2+
Cd intoxication
kidney damage
"Itai itai disease" - mass Cd poisoning in Japan in 1950

- the name comes from painful screams
( "itai" in Japanese = PAIN )
- the bones become soft and weak severe pain, fractures
"Chemical castration" = destruction of seminiferous epithelium

of testicles ( Zn2+ antagonism )
Mercury Hg (Hydrargyrum)
Toxic effects
1) elemental Hg
- very toxic when absorbed as a vapour through lungs

- poorly absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract !!!
(only purgative effect)
2) inorganic Hg compounds
HgCl2 - "sublimate" - soluble in water = toxic
- corrosive ulceration of GI tract
- renal failure
Hg2Cl2 "calomel" - low solubility = less toxic

- it was used in medicine ! (diuretic and purgative
effect, ointments in dermatology)
- calomel electrod (reference electrod - measurement of pH)
2) organic Hg compounds
- often extremely toxic
- dimethylmercury
Hg(CH3)2
damage of CNS (central nervous system)

- one of the strongest known neurotoxins !
"The Minamata Disease" - mass Hg poisoning in Japan in 1956

- Minamata Bay waste industrial water with Hg2+
biomethylation by a variety of microorganism
bioaccumulation in FISH
dietary intake from fish diets
Poison grain disaster in Iraq (1971) - seed grain mercury-treated to prevent rot
was used as FOOD
Elements of group III

III A
III B
Borum
Sc
Al
Aluminium
Ga
La
In
Ac
Tl
Ra
Boron
(Borum)
PLANTS micromineral
Boric acid
H3BO3 - a very weak acid

- disinfectant (used in dermatology and ophtalmology)
- also toxic properties !
glutamine synthetase
glutamine
NH3 + glutamate
H3BO3 = inhibitor
toxic to BRAIN
Sodium tetraborate Na2B4O10 = borax
(fusible glaze for pottery)
Aluminium
Al
in human body only traces contamination ?

Al(OH)3 together with MgO or Mg(OH)2
oral antacid
(neutralization of acid in the stomach)
Al also considered as toxic

ACID RAIN
SOIL release of Al3+ !
Elements of group IV
IV A
IV B
Carboneum
Ti
Si
Silicium
Zr
Ge
Hf
Sn
Stannum
Pb
Plumbum
Carbon
(Carboneum)
the most important biogenic element

organic compounds (covalent bonds C-C, chains, rings)
biomolecules: proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates
combustion CO, CO2
respiration CO2
Toxic:
CO
HCN
competes with O2 for hemoglobin
reaction with cytochromes inactivation of cell respiration
Silicon
Si
(Silicium)
abundant element in lithosfere, but not useful in human body

SiO2 (silica)
Quartz - common mineral in the Earths crust
- many varieties: amethyst (purple)

citrine (yellow)
morion (dark-brown)
rose quartz (pink)
- in many rocks (granit, sandstone), metallic ores
cutting, breaking, crushing, ...
inhalation of fine SiO2 dust SILICOSIS - lung disease

occupational disease (miners, ceramics workers)
progressive, signs of it will appear years after exposure !
Silicic acids:
general formula
n SiO2 . m H2O
H4SiO4 orthosilicic acid

Silicates - salts of silicic acids
SiO44-
Si atom - tetrahedral coordination by 4 oxygens
complex structure - different degrees of "polymerization"
linear arrangement FIBERS (asbestos)

planar arrangement MICAS
Silicate minerals - largest class of rock-forming minerals
Lecture III
Elements of group V
VA
VB
Nitrogenium
Phosphorus
Nb
As
Arsenicum
Ta
Sb
Stibium
Bi
Bismuthum
Vanadium
Nitrogen
N2
78% of the atmosphere
- principal bioelement:
(Nitrogenium)
- chemically rather inert
organic compounds ( "NH3 derivatives" )

AMINO ACIDS
PROTEINS
many heterocyclic compounds

pyrimidine
uracil, thymine, cytosine

NUCLEIC ACIDS
(DNA, RNA)
purine
adenine, guanine
NH3
ammonia
- sharp odour
toxic properties for animals
NH4+ ammonium ion
N2O
Nitrous oxide [ Dinitrogen oxide ]

= "laughing gas"
- surgery: inhalation insensibility to PAIN
= anaesthetic and analgetic effects (without muscle relaxation)
obstetrics - pain relief during childbirth
NO
NO2
Nitric oxide [ Nitrogen monoxide ]

Nitrogen dioxide - reddish-brown gas
in the environment
-toxic gases
(Photochemical smog)
Biological functions of NO
= important gaseous signaling molecule !!!
EDRF = endothelium-derived relaxing factor
NO
Endothelial cell
NO
Smooth muscle cell
NO synthesis
diffusion
relaxation
Nitroglycerin vasodilator
NO
- treatment of angina pectoris

(a lack of blood suply of heart muscle chest pain)
Nitroglycerin = glyceryl trinitrate - oily explosive liquid
[ DYNAMITE ]
Biochemical formation of NO
Arginine
(amino acid)
enzyme: NO
synthase
NO
halflife: ~ 4 sec.
Citrulline
Functions of NO: 1) dilation of blood vessels vasodilator ( = EDRF )

2) neurotransmitter
3) in macrophages and neutrophils immune response
(NO is toxic to bacteria)
4) role in penile erection
HNO2
Nitrous acid (INN: Acidum nitrosum)
salts: nitrites
NaNO2
- weak acid, not stable
Sodium nitrite (INN: Natrii nitris)
- toxic !
food additive: alters the color of preserved meat
prevents growth of Clostridium botulinum
(botulinum toxin botulism)
organic nitrites = esters of nitrous acid
Amyl nitrite treatment of angina pectoris
HNO3
Nitric acid
(INN: Acidum nitricum)
- strong acid
- oxidazing agent !
salts:
nitrates
AgNO3
Silver nitrate (INN: Argenti nitras)
Toxicity of NO2- (NO3-)

NO3-
intestinal bacteria can reduce nitrates to nitrites:

Limits for drinking water: NO3-
50 mg/l
1) Methemoglobinemia
HEMOGLOBIN
adults
15 mg/l
NO2infants
"blue baby syndrom"

nitrites
METHEMOGLOBIN
FeIII
FeII
unable to transfer O2
methemoglobin reductase
"protective enzyme" - insufficient in infants !
2) Nitrosamines
Nitrites can react with secondary amines
Nitrosamines
CARCINOGENS !
Nitrites in food - meat and cheese products preserved with
nitrite pickling salt !!!
Phosphorus
-
principal bioelement
H3PO4
Phosphoric acid
(INN: Acidum phosphoricum)
- in biochemistry: "phosphates" = esters of H3PO4
1) Bone and tooth mineral:
hydroxyapatite
Ca5(PO4)3OH
2) Anions in body fluids:
H2PO4- / HPO42-
3) Nucleotides, DNA, RNA

4) Structural lipids (phospholipids) - membranes !
5) Metabolic intermediates (Glucose6phosphate, ...)

6) High energy compounds
ATP
ATP = adenosine triphosphate

ester bond
phosphoanhydride
bonds
ATP + H2O
ADP + Pi + energy
ATP + H2O
AMP + PPi + energy

pyrophosphate
DE = - 30.5 kJ/mol
ATP = adenosine triphosphate

ATP is used to drive many energy consuming reactions !
ATP is used as "energy" for active transport ("pumps")
ATP is often used to "activate metabolites":

hexokinase
ATP
glucose
ADP
glucose-6-P
ATP is formed from ADP when "fuel molecules" are oxidized.
glucose CO2 + H2O
up to 36-38 ATP / molecule of glucose
(majority of this ATP production: oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria)
Organophosphate neurotoxins
Sarin, soman, tabun - "nerve gases"
Sarin
- extremely toxic substances !!!

- chemical weapons of mass destruction
very potent insecticid
Parathion
also highly toxic !
inhibition of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase !
neuronal synapse
neurotransmitter
receptor
effect
receptor
synaptic cleft
2)
vesicles with
neurotransmitter
1)
Neurotransmitter must be removed from the synaptic cleft (after its job is done) !
1) REUPTAKE
2) Enzymatic breakdown into inactive fragments - ACETYLCHOLINE
(acetylcholinesterase)
Cholinergic synapses
( neurotransmitter = acetylcholine )
botulinum toxin
vesicles with
acetylcholine (ACH)
(release of ACH is blocked)
organophosphates
synaptic cleft
(acetylcholinesterase is blocked)
*
ACH receptor
ATROPINE
(ACH receptor is blocked)
* acetylcholinesterase
*
acetylcholine
choline
acetic acid
Vanadium
- trace element in certain species
vanadium-associated proteins - O2 transport in some primitive classes of animals ?
Ta
Tantalum
- metallic element highly resistent

- biologically inert
- surgical implants
As
Arsenicum
- toxic in all forms
dentistry root canal therapy (devitalisation of tooth) arsenic compounds

SALVARSAN - organic compound containing As
- drug that was used to treat syphilis !
- the first effective "chemotherapeutic agent"
before penicillin (1940s)
- severe side effects
Elements of group VI
VI A
Chalcogens
VI B
Oxygenium
Cr
Chromium
Sulfur
Mo
Molybdaenum
Se
Selenium
Wolframium
Te
Tellurium
Po
Oxygen
O2
(Oxygenium)
21% of the atmosphere
- principal bioelement:
- OH
H2O
many functional groups in biomolecules
"hydroxyl group"
alcohols, phenols
"carbonyl group"
aldehydes, ketones
- COOH
"carboxyl group"
carboxylic acids
electron acceptor in biologically important oxidations !

O2 + 4 e-
2 O2-
+ 4 H+
2 H2O
Oxygen radicals
- TEXTBOOK (Toxicity of oxygen)
very reactive can cause damage to most cell components !!!

O2 + e-
O2-
superoxide radical
+ H+
O2H
perhydroxyl radical
(hydroperoxyl)
H2O2 + e-
OH-
ROS = reactive oxygen species
OH
hydroxyl radical
not only "free radicals", also H2O2
Sulphur
(Sulfur)
- principal bioelement
H2S
- SH
Hydrogen sulphide
- strong poison
- gas with odour of rotten eggs
sulfhydryl groups in organic structures

(often: active groups of proteins enzymes)
protein
SH
SH
Toxic heavy metals ( Pb, Hg, As, ...) - block sulfhydryl groups !
H2SO3
Sulphurous acid (INN: Acidum sulfurosum)
salts: sulphites
H2SO4
Sulphuric acid
( ........ sulfis )
(INN: Acidum sulfuricum)
salts: sulphates
H2S2O3
- weak acid
Thiosulphuric acid
- strong acid
( ........ sulfas )
(INN: Acidum thiosulfuricum)
salts: thiosulphates
( ........ thiosulfas )
H2S
Hydrogen sulphide
salts: sulphides
(INN: Acidum hydrosulfuricum)

( ........ sulfuridum !!! )
Amino acids containing sulphur

cysteine ( Cys )
methionine ( Met )
- essential amino acids
- in proteins
Redox reactions
R
SH
-2H
SH
2H
disulfide bond
-SS-
disulfide bonds stabilize the folded form of a protein

S
intermolecular -S-S- bonds
SH
oxidation
intramolecular -S-S- bond
O
S
OH
"sulfates"
sulfate groups - modification of polysaccharides

(heparine, chondroitin sulfate, keratan sulfate, ...)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------Vitamins containing S
important
lipoic acid
vitamin B1 (thiamin)
COENZYMES
biotin
Coenzyme A - thiol
pantothenic acid
- acyl group carrier
thiol + carboxylic acid thioester

("high energy bond")
coenzyme A
Acetyl-CoA
important molecule in metabolism
Selenium
Se
trace element
- in enzymes:
glutathion peroxidase (destruction of peroxides)
- chemically related to sulphur analogous amino acids
selenocysteine
= "rare amino acid" in some proteins: thyroid hormone deiodinases
Chromium
Cr
trace element
- component of "glucose tolerance factor"
potentiates the effects of insuline

( better binding to receptors ? )
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Molybdenum
Mo
(Molybdaenum)
trace element
-cofactor of several enzymes:
xanthine oxidase
xanthine
uric acid
Elements of group VII

VII A
Halogens
VII B
Fluorum
Mn
Cl
Chlorum
Tc
Br
Bromum
Re
I
At
Iodum
Manganum
Fluorine
trace element
Ca5(PO4)3F
(Fluorum)
F2
fluorapatite
yellowish very reactive gas
- bones, teeth
compounds of fluorine ( NaF ) toothpaste to prevent dental caries
excessive consumption of F-
"fluorosis" - damage of dental enamel

(white spots, mottling of enamel)
Freons (chlorofluorocarbons) - destruction of O3 layer

Hydrofluorocarbon derivatives - inhalational general anaesthetics
halothane
(isofluran, sevofluran, ...)
Chlorine
Cl2
Cl
(Chlorum)
pale green poisonous gas, suffocating odour
World War I
chemical weapon destruction of lungs !

(it was soon replaced by more deadly gases phosgene, ...)
COCl2
Cl
Cl2 + H2O
HClO
HCl
HCl
Chlorination of water
HClO
- to KILL bacteria
Cl
Cl-
important anion in body fluids

the main EXTRAcellular anion
(97 108 mmol/l)
Physiologic saline solution (= isotonic = same osmolality as blood plasma)
NaCl
0.9 %
Inorganic acids
HCl
Hydrochloric acid
Acidum hydrochloricum
HClO
Hypochlorous acid
Acidum hypochlorosum
HClO2
Chlorous acid
Acidum chlorosum
HClO3
Chloric acid
Acidum chloricum
HClO4
Hyperchloric acid
Acidum hyperchloricum
HCl - stomach !
CHCl3
Chloroform
- one of the first anesthetics (~ 1850)
- inhaled vapour insensibility "painless surgery"

- hepatotoxic !
phosgene !
- 2 CHCl3 + O2
2 HCl + 2 COCl2
(war gas)
CCl4
Tetrachloromethane ( Carbon tetrachloride)

- solvent
- hepatotoxic ! ( = liver damage )
CH3CH2Cl
Ethyl chloride
- boiling point 13o C
- evaporation cooling down the skin pain relief
- local skin anesthesia (sport injuries , ...)
CH2
CHCl Vinyl chloride
- is used to produce its polymer: PVC
DDT
(dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane)
best known banned pesticide

(insecticide)
high solubility in lipids !
contact poison for INSECTS only:
lipids of insect cuticule penetration to nervous ganglia paralysis death
DDT was used with great effect to prevent insect-borne diseases !
(mosquitoes MALARIA
lice spotted TYPHUS)
environmental impact ! - long half life = persistent pollutant
magnifying through the food chain accumulation in fatty tissue
(reproductive toxicity, carcinogen ?, ...)
1960s USA - DDT - major reason for the decline of the bald eagle
(impaired quality of eggshells)
Polychlorinated biphenyls PCBs
biphenyl
good technical properties were used as: insulating materials

cooling fluids in transformers
additives in plastics
PROBLEM: very stable ! = persistent pollutants
contamination of soil
plants
animals
BANNED
cumulation in lipids, milk
(carcinogens ?)
DIOXIN
tetrachlorodibenzo-1,4-dioxin
TCDD
(the most toxic dioxin)
general poison
LD50 = 10 - 100 g/kg
very stable, very resistant (up to 800o C)
("lethal dose")
persistent pollutant
accumulation in fatty tissues - teratogens, mutagens, carcinogens

by-product of production of herbicides
Vietnam War - Agent Orange (herbicide contaminated by TCDD)
1976 Seveso (Italy) - industrial accident uncontrolled reaction
explosion of chemical reactor cloud containing dioxin !
Iodine
(Iodum)
trace element
as element: purple black solid
sublimes into purple gas !
- solubility in water can be increased by addition of KI

Lugols solution
( I2
KI
water )
desinfectant
tincture of iodin = I2 in ethanol
starch + iodine
complexes of deep blue color
starch = mixture of a-amylose linear polymer of glucose

amylopectin branched polymer of glucose
- polysaccharide of PLANTS in FOOD
Thyroid hormones
T4
thyroxine
deiodinases in tissues
Se (selenocysteine) !
T3
triiodothyronine
smaller quantity, greater activity !
Function:
stimulation of metabolism (act to increase the metabolic rate)

essential to proper development (BRAIN !)
Disorders
Deficiency of thyroid hormones
= hypothyroidism
metabolism
low body temperature

intolerance to cold
weight gain
weakness, lethargy
- children: mental retardation, short stature [ CRETENISM ]

Excess of thyroid hormones
= hyperthyroidism ( Graves disease )

metabolism
intolerance to heat
weight loss
increased heart rate
(tachycardia)
GOITER (Latin STRUMA) = enlarged thyroid gland

(function of the gland can be low, normal, high)
Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of the thyroid hormones !!!

FOOD
THYROID
GLAND
BLOOD
I-, IO3-, ...
very effective in
uptake of Ifrom blood !!!
thyroid
peroxidase
2 I-
I2
iodination
THYREOGLOBULIN
TSH (Thyroid-stimulating hormone)
proteolysis
hormone release into the blood
Thyroid gland is composed of spherical "follicles"
uptake of I-
I-
thyreoglobulin
I2
T4, T3 release
into blood
follicular cells
"Colloid" inside the follicles is

rich in protein
THYREOGLOBULIN
Iodine in food
seafood - rich of iodine !
inland areas (Czech republic !!!)
iodine deficiency
endemic goiter
endemic cretenism
prevention: iodised SALT ( = table salt fortified with NaI, KI, or KIO3)
( 25 mg KI / 1 kg of salt )
Radioisotopes of iodine
same properties as "normal" iodine selective accumulation in thyroid gland
Medicine
131
I b
123
I g
- treatment of thyroid cancer or Graves disease

( irradiation causes the destruction of the thyroid tissue )
- imaging and evaluating the function of the gland
131
Chernobyl disaster
129
elevated chances of thyroid cancer

- prevention: taking large amounts of "normal" iodine will saturate thyroid gland
and prevent uptake of "dangerous" radioiodine
Manganese
Mn
(Manganum)
trace element
- cofactor of enzymes:
KMnO4
superoxide dismutase
pyruvate carboxylase
Potassium permanganate
(INN: Kalii permanganas)
- in water dissolves to give deep purple solutions

- strong oxidizing agent
- dilute solutions can act as desinfectant
Elements of group VIII

VIII A
Noble
gases
VIII B
Ferrum
He
Fe
Co
Ni
Cobaltum
Ne
Ru
Rh
Pd
Niccolum
Ir
Pt
Ar
Kr
Xe
Rn
Os
Iron
Fe
(Ferrum)
important microelement
human body: 45 g Fe
a) functional form
- heme iron proteins hemoglobin 70 %

myoglobin
5%
some enzymes
- non-heme iron proteins
b) tranport form (transferrin)
c) storage of iron (ferritin, hemosiderin)
20 %
Fe in food 10-30 mg/day
absorption: only 7-10%
~ 1 mg/day
HEME iron proteins

Hemoglobin
- O2 transport in blood
- in red blood cells

- tetramer = 4 subunits
(each subunit: one heme + one globin)
HbA
HbF
("adult")
("fetal")
a2b2
a2g2
Myoglobin - "O2 storage" in muscle cell

Cytochromes
heme
- electron transport
- their function is based on:
Fe2+ (reduced)
Fe3+ (oxidized)
Non-heme iron proteins
FeII or
FeIII bound to
protein
SH
ironsulphur proteins (FeS proteins)
Transferrin - blood plasma protein ( b1 globulin )

- transport of Fe
- 1 molecule of transferrin can carry 2 iron ions in form of Fe3+
Ferritin - intracellular iron storage protein (liver, bone marrow)

- 1 ferritin complex can store about 4500 Fe3+
- ferritin without iron = apoferritin
Hemosiderin - "damaged (Fe-overloaded) ferritin" - Fe from it is less available
Overview of iron metabolism

FOOD
tissues
CYTOCHROMES
Fe-S proteins
liver
FERRITIN
HEMOSIDERIN
muscles
MYOGLOBIN
blood plasma
TRANSFERRIN
bone marrow
FERRITIN
spleen
FERRITIN
red blood cells

HEMOGLOBIN
BLEEDING (Fe losses)
Iron metabolism = unique

- reutilization !
(closed system)
NO regulated excretion system for Fe !

Fe absorption must be "regulated"
Loss of Fe through loss of blood (females
Iron deficiency - microcytic anemia
Iron overload
- mestrual bleeding)
"iron deficiency anemia"
- hemochromatosis = accumulation of iron in the body

(depositions as hemosiderin)
organ dysfunction (liver, heart, ...)
Iron absorption
FOOD Fe3+
STOMACH
HCl pH 1-2
ascorbic acid
gastroferrin - iron binding protein
reduction
Fe2+
Fe3+
apoferritin
BLOOD
ferritin
(Fe3+)
INTESTINAL MUCOSA CELL
Fe2+
transferrin (Fe3+)
Cobalt
Co
(Cobaltum)
trace element
- central atom of vitamin B12 (cobalamin)
(daily intake ~ 1 g "the liver store": 35 years !)
Vit. B12 deficiency

megaloblastic anemia
pernicious anemia due to impaired absorption !

Absorption of vit. B12
gastric parietal cells
B12
intrinsic factor
complex B12 intrinsic factor

absorption in terminal ileum
Good practices of food chain

in Polish food industry
facts and chalanges
Magorzata Korzeniowska
Wrocaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences
Life Cycle Assessment
Definition of food chain

A food supply chain, logistics network, or supply network is a coordinated system
of entities, activities, information and resources involved in moving a product or
service from supplier to customer.
The entities of a supply chain consist of primary producers,secondury production,
manufacturers, service providers, distributors, and retail outlets. Food supply
chain activities transform raw materials and components into a finished product.
The primary objective of
food
supply
chain
management is to fulfill
customer
demands
through the most efficient
use of resources.
Sustainable food chain

Environmental
objectives:
1) air pollution control,
2) water pollution
control,
3) soil pollution control,
4) noise pollution
control,
5) protection against
radiation.
Nutritional objectives:
1) providing enough food for
mankind,
2) providing nutritious food
(macro- and microelements),
3) providing safe food,
4) providing stable food
delivery,
5) providing food in time and
place required by
consumers.
Economic objectives:
1) achievement of equality
point between supply and
demand,
2) ensuring moderate
food prices,
3) maintenance of job
posts,
4) maximization of added
value,
5) maximization of return
on investment.
Social objectives:
1) ensuring a good standard of life for families of farmers, processors, traders
and all involved in the food chain,
2) promotion of good interpersonal relations between people involved in the food
chain,
3) promotion of good health of all food consumers,
4) promotion of prolonged lifespan of all food consumers.
Relationship betwen food quality , food health quality and food safety traits
Food quality
Safety (hazard-free)
Nutritional values
Sensory values
Convenience
Food
Healthy
Quality
Obligation of food safety and quality systems
Quality & Safety

Assurance and Management
Systems
Obligatory
(required by law)
Safety
GMP/GHP, HACCP
Voluntary
(expected by consumers)
Quality
QACP, ISO 9000, ISO 14000
Diagram of the relationship between GMP, GHP, HACCP, QACP, QMS

(ISO-9000, ISO-14000, etc.) and TQM (Sikora & Strada)
Integration of good nutritional practice in quality system
Good Practice means activity of the quality assurance which ensures that food
products and food related processes are consistent and controlled to assure
quality procedures in food systems.
If analyse good practices we can find three categories of good practices:

Directly connected with food (i.e.: GMP good manufacturing practice)
Indirectly connected with food issues (i.e.: GRP good research practice)
Needed be not existing in reality (i.e.: GKP good housekeeping practice)
Good practices directly conected to food issues

good agricultural practice (GAP)
good catering practice (GCP)
good housekeeping practice (GKP)

good hygiene practice (GHP)
good laboratory practice (GLP)
good manufacturing practice (GMP)
good retail practice (GRP)
good storage practice (GSP)
good transport practice (GTP)
GAP
Good Agricultural Practice is selection of the methods of land use which can best
achieve the objectives of agronomic and environmental sustainability in primary
food production.
A GAP approach aims at applying available knowledge to addressing environmental,
economic and social sustainability dimensions for on-farm production and postproduction processes, resulting in safe and quality food and non-food agricultural
products. Based on generic sustainability principles, it aims at supporting locally
developed optimal practices for a given production system based on a desired
outcome, taking into account market demands and farmers constraints and incentives
to apply practices.
World agriculture in the twenty-first century is faced with three main challenges:
1) to improve food security, rural livelihoods and income;
2) to satisfy the increasing and diversified demands for safe food and other products;
3) to conserve and protect natural resources.
GAP principles:
1. Soil
2. Water
3. Crop and fodder production
4. Crop protection
5. Animal production
6. Animal health and welfare
7. Harvest and on-farm processing and storage
8. Energy and waste management
9. Human welfare, health and safety
10. Wildlife and landscape
GCP
Good catering practice consist of practical advices and assistance to
managers of catering (food service) outlets and suppliers to caterers.
The Guidelines concentrate on the essential steps needed to ensure that the
food served is always safe and Wholesome.
GHP
Good Hygiene Practice refer to procedures that must be undertaken and hygiene
conditions that have to be fulfilled and monitored at all stages of production or
trade in order to guarantee food safety.
Good Hygiene Practice consists of practical procedures and processes that return
the processing environment to its original condition (disinfection or sanitation
programmes); keep building and equipment in efficient operation (maintenance
programme); control of cross-contamination during manufacture (usually related
to people, surfaces, the air and the segregation of raw and processed product).
GLP
Good Laboratory Practice consists of a qualitative system governing organisational
processes and conditions of planning, implementing, controlling, recording and reporting.
The principles which consist of GLP are intended to identify the GLP requirements for test
facilities (laboratories) which perform studies for regulatory purposes.
GMP
Good Manufacturing Practice denotes all the actions that must be undertaken and
conditions to be fulfilled in order to ensure that production of food, wrapping materials and
other materials expected for contact with food, is executed in proper way to guarantee safe
end products and safe food for human consumption.
Good Manufacturing Practice consists of practical procedures and processes that ensure
quality system, provide consistent manufacture and control of products by qualitative
criteria and conformity assessing criteria with intended purpose as required by the
marketing authorisation and specification of the product. It is part of the quality assurance
which ensures that food products are consistently produced and controlled to the quality
standards appropriate to their intended use.
GMP principles:
1. Cleaning and disinfection
2. Pest control
3. Water and air quality
4. Temperature control
5. Personnel (facilities, hygienic way of working, health, education)
6. Structure and infrastructure (surrounding area, building, materials, equipment)
7. Technical maintenance
8. Waste management
9. Control of raw material
10. Work methodology
GRP
Good Retail Practice consists of practical procedures and processes that ensure the right
products are delivered to the right addressee within a satisfactory time period and at
required conditions. A tracing system should enable any faulty product to be found and
there should be an effective recall procedure.
GSP
Good Storage Practice consists of practical procedures and processes that ensure
appropriate handling of foods, regarding implementation and control of product storage in
accordance with a defined regime prior to their use.
GTP
Good Transport Practice consists of practical procedures and processes that ensure a
qualitative system governing the organization, implementation and control of transport of
food products from the producer to the final user.
Good Nutrition Practice interlinking relevantgood practices in food supply chain
Good Nutritional Practice as basis for launching Good Life Practice principles
The Prerequisite Programme (GHP/GMP) is the first step to implementation of

food safety and quality systems along the entire food chain beginning with the initial
production, feed production, animal rearing, processing, transport and ending with
the retail trade. The area covered by the GHP and GMP requirements [Turlejska
2003] comprises:
the site, surroundings and infrastructure of the enterprise,
enterprise facilities and their functional layout,
machines and equipment,
washing and disinfecting processes,
water supplies,
waste control,
pest protection and appropriate control in this field,
personnel training,
personnel hygiene,
keeping documentation and records in the area of GHP.
New European Union Food Hygiene Regulations require that all food businesses (except
primary producers) implement food safety management procedures based on HACCP
principles from 2006. The principal objective of the new general and specific hygiene rules
is to ensure a high level of consumer protection with regard to food safety (Regulation EC,
2004).
HACCP (hazard analysis and critical control point)
is a quality management system for effectively and efficiently ensuring

farm-to-table food safety by controlling microbial, chemical, and physical
hazards associated with food production. A prevention-based system, it
takes a proactive approach by identifying the principal hazards and the
control points where contamination can be prevented, limited, or
eliminated across the whole food production process rather than trying to
identify and control contamination after it has occurred. HACCP principles
are being applied to an increasing range of food products.
Critical control points (CCPs) are the result of hazard analysis and, in practical
conditions, they can be treated as an operation or action that the manufacturer must
pay special attention to because these points pose real hazards to the safety of food
products in the case of deviations from the established parameters. At the same time
CCPs are the point of control for the identified hazard but is not always the point
where the hazard occurs i.e. enters the food chain. The control can be applied before
the hazard occurs or after i.e. cooking.
CCP decision tree
The HACCP system is based on seven principles which, simultaneously, make

up consecutive stages of its implementation:
hazard analysis, in other words, identification and assessment of threats and

possible hazards of their occurrence and determination of control measures and
methods of counteracting these threats,
determination of critical control points (CCP) in order to eliminate or minimise the
occurrence of hazards,
establish critical limits for the critical control points identified,
determination and implementation of a system for the monitoring of critical control
points,
establishment of corrective actions, if a critical control point does not fulfill the
necessary requirements,
establishment of verification procedures in order to confirm if the system is
effective and acts in accordance with the plan,
elaboration and maintenance of the documentation of the HACCP system
concerning stages of its implementation and determination of the method of data
registration and storage as well as archiving of the system documentation.
The basis for the elaboration and implementation of the HACCP system is the Codex
Alimentarius. Other standards are also known, among others, the Danish Standard
or the new ISO 22000 Standard.
The application of HACCP
Stage 1. effective preparation and planning
Stage 2. the application of the 7 HACCP principles

Stage 3. the implementation of the HACCP study output
Stage 4. the ongoing of the HACCP system
HACCP awarness
and understanding of HACCP concept
Identification and training of the HACCP

team
Baseline audit and gap analysis

(evaluate current control measures)
Plan the HACCP study

(inc. the HACCP system structure)
Stage 1.
Preparation and planning
Describe the product and identify the intended use

Construct and validate process flow diagram
Identifiy hazards and control measures
Identify critical control points
Establish critical limits
Identify monitoring procedures
Establish corrective action plan procedure

Validate the HACCP plan
Stage 2.
HACCP studies and HACCP plan development
Determine method of implementation

Agree actions and timetable
Conduct
awarness training
Set up monitoring
systems
Set up facilities
and equipment
Confirm implementation actions complete
Verify implementation
through audit
Stage 3.
Implementing the HACCP plan
Corrective
actions
Defined standards
and regular audit
Ongoing maintenance
Records review and data

analysis (verification)
Problem solving
Corrective and preventative

action
HACCP plan re-validation
Documentation controlled
update
Stage 4.
Maintaining the HACCP plan
Standards from the ISO 9000 family include standards which implement in various
organisations systems of quality management. They were elaborated in such a way
as to allow their application in different enterprises irrespective of branches in which
they operate. It is, therefore, unimportant if a given organisation manufactures a
product or provides services. The ISO 9000 family comprises the following
standards:
ISO 9000, which embraces the basis of the quality management systems and
terminology [ISO 9000:2000],
ISO 9001, which specifies requirements concerning the quality management
system; it is precisely this standard that is implemented in enterprises [ISO 9001:
2000],
ISO 9004, which specifies guidelines for the improvement of the system already
implemented in a company [ISO 9004:2000],
ISO 19011, which contains
recommendations concerning
auditing [ISO 19011:2002].
ISO 9000 standard in accordance with the eight principles:

customer-oriented,
leadership (leaders establish the unity of the aim and operation of the organisation),
involvement of the personnel,
process approach,
system approach to management,
continuous improvement,
decision taking on the basis of facts,
mutually beneficial cooperation with suppliers.
It also simplifies purchase and supplier qualification procedures and, at the same
time, reduces costs associated with these operations. The quality management
system based on the ISO 9000 standard covers the following areas: management of
the organisation, management of resources, process of product realisation as
well as measurements, analyses and improvement.
The International Food Standard (IFS) and the British Retail Consortium (BRC)
standard are based, among others, on the GHP/GMP principles, the HACCP system and the ISO
9001 standard. However, the above standards include requirements which are not found in any of
the earlier discussed norms and comprise:
the obligation to include in the threat analysis of the hazards associated with allergies,
monitoring of work effectiveness,

the need to cover facial hair with appropriate hygiene masks,
checking of the hands hygiene of workers,
the requirement to carry out application tests of products,
documented system of management of stocks of raw materials and products,
complying with the FIFO principle,
elaboration of a system which allows the company to obtain information about GMO,
elaboration of procedures in case of unusual situations,
the requirement to apply metal detectors,
elaboration of the list of places in the production-storage area where glass and other
hazardous material occur,
development of a procedure for the qualification, approval and verification of suppliers,
total ban of smoking on the entire area of the company.
Both the IFS and BRC standard do not allow any freedom and each, even the smallest
requirement, is described precisely. The advantage of this approach is that there are no
problems with the interpretation of requirements and later on with the overinterpretation of
auditors.
The ISO 22000:2005 standard is a completely new standard published in September

2005 with the aim to unify principles of the quality systems used in the food industry. It
is an optional standard because it goes beyond the framework of the GHP/GMP and
HACCP requirements. Its range encompasses [ISO 22000:2005]:
The Prerequisite Programme (PRP), i.e. the GHP/GMP principles and GAP (Good
Agricultural Practice), GVP (Good Veterinarian Practice), GPP (Good Production
Practice), GDP (Good Distribution Practice ), GTP (Good Trading Practice),
the HACCP system,
the identification system (traceability system),
the quality management system ISO 9001:2000.
ISO 22000:2005 integrates both the quality management system
(ISO 9001:2000) and HACCP system. There are also cross
references between ISO 22000, ISO 9004 and terms and definitions
from ISO 9000.
The most effective system of food quality and safety was designed, which
implemented into existing structure of management can give profits both organisation
and other interested party. Furthermore, it may be implemented independently of
other management systems existing into enterprise.
The level of GHP, GMP and HACCP system

implementation in Polish food industry after accession
to the European Union
The level of GHP implementation in Polish food industry
Source: Morkis G., 2007, 2008
The level of GHP implementation in Polish food industry in 2005
The level of GMP implementation in Polish food industry
The level of GMP implementation in Polish food industry in 2005
The level of HACCP system implementation in Polish food industry
The level of HACCP system implementation in Polish food industry in

2005 and 2007
Dynamic [%] of GHP, GMP and HACCP implementation in Polish food industry
between 2004 and 2007
industry
GHP
GMP
HACCP
Baking
440
521
1058
Pasta
221
209
227
Cereales
189
173
203
Fruit-vegetables
166
168
167
Mineral water and

beverages
155
175
158
Dairy
18
15
93
Fish
86
Sugar
26
26
40
Teas and coffees
45
53
Oils and fats
Source: Morkis G., 2008
67
Benefits from the implementation of HACCP system

in terms of improving food safety
Trafiaek i Koozyn-Krajewska, 2007
Intangible benefits from the implementation of HACCP system

Tangible and economical benefits from the implementation of HACCP system

Main barriers during HACCP implementation

training,
human resources,
planning,
knowledge and competence,
documentation,
resources,
management commitment
Barriers faced by firms in implementing HACCP
Implementation of HACCP impeded by internal budgetary constraints

Problems obtaining external funding
Current food safety controls considered sufficient
Lot of changes to our production processes needed before HACCP could be put in place
The things needing to be done in order to implement HACCP overwhelmed us
Other investments considered more important
Lot of changes to our food safety controls needed before HACCP could be put in place
Wide scale upgrading of the plant needed before HACCP could be put in place
Scale of operation is too small to have HACCP
Not sure whether the implementation of HACCP would meet future regulatory
requirements
Uncertain about the potential benefits of implementing HACCP
HACCP difficult to implement because of internal organization of the company
Concerned that HACCP would reduce our flexibility in production
Thought it best to wait and see the experiences of other companies before implementing
ourselves
Did not really see HACCP as suitable for our plant
Not sure whether the implementation of HACCP would meet our customers requirements
Considered that costs of implementing HACCP likely to get cheaper over time
Greater priority given to other issues than enhancing our food safety controls
Food safety issues not considered sufficiently important to warrant the investment
HACCP goes against all of the ways in which we have traditionally done things
Factor loadings of barriers to HACCP Implementation:

Uncertainty about potential benefits from HACCP
Perception that current food safety control are sufficient
Tendency to learn from other's experience before acting
Uncertainty about whether future regulatory requirements met by HACCP
Perception that firm's scale of operation is too small for HACCP
Perception that HACCP is not suitable for the firm
Perception that HACCP would reduce the flexibility of operations
Perception that HACCP goes against our traditional methods
Uncertainty about meeting customer requirements with HACCP
Scale and scope of changes prior to adopting HACCP
Scale and scope of changes to food safety controls
Wide scale facility upgrading required for HACCP implementation
Overwhelmed by things to be done to adopt HACCP
Greater priority given to other issues
Food safety investment being a low priority
Relative importance of other investments
Internal budgetary constraints
Difficulty in obtaining external funding
Economic difficulties during the implementation of the HACCP system before

and after Polands accession to the EU
Difficulties with personel composition and with essential facts concerning the
problem during the implementation of the HACCP system before and after
Polands accession to the EU
What can be done more???

No let-up on the basics
In the food processing environment, constant reinforcement on the food
safety basics is necessary. These basics include such procedures as
personnel hygiene practices and training programs, cleaning, sanitation
and maintenance procedures, effective product recall programs, provisions
for safe water supply, and procedures for handling product throughout the
entire manufacturing and distribution processes.
Continuing consumer education

Once food leaves the processor, there is also a role for consumers and others to
play in maintaining basic food safety precautions. Improper food handling in the
home and at retail food establishments accounts for more reported cases of
foodborne illness than does failure at the food processing level.
Greater use of risk-based criteria and greater flexibility in directing

regulatory resources quickly and efficiently to high-risk areas
Massive restructuring of the nations food regulatory agencies may not be

politically or economically feasible, at least in the short term. However,
attention can and should be focused on strengthening regulatory agency
capabilities in areas where greatest risks lie. In todays world of heightened
terrorist awareness, where deliberate contamination of food supplies is a
very real threat, additional attention and resources will be directed at this
problem. But that effort can complement existing food safety approaches in
many ways. Many of the systems and tools that will strengthen protections
against accidental contamination will also help protect against deliberate
contamination of the food supply.
Expanded partnerships.
The publics perception is that the government will protect them 100 percent
when it comes to eating their food. The reality is that government has to
work in partnership with industry and in partnership with consumers
themselves in guaranteeing safer food.
More sharing of information and less duplication of effort

The advent of international food safety management system standards is
opening up new avenues for cooperation and sharing of data among food
safety regulatory agencies, the food industry, and the network of privatesector organizations that are springing up to audit the food industry to these
new standards. Multiple audits and inspections of individual facilities can be
reduced. These opportunities need to be exploited.
Greater use of economic incentives

Economic incentives are demonstrably more effective than regulatory
pressure. An example is the USDA Agricultural Marketing Services use of
economic incentives and performance standards linked to statistical process
control and continuous improvement to ensure that ground beef purchased
for school lunch programs is safe and meets purchasing requirements. In
the four years that this program has been in effect there has been a
continual improvement in the microbiological quality of the ground beef. If
purveyors want to sell ground beef to the school lunch program, they must
have systems that are shown to be in process control. If a suppliers process
deteriorates, that supplier will be removed from approved status and placed
on conditional status. During this time the supplier must take appropriate
corrective and preventive actions to bring the process back into compliance
with specification. If the supplier fails to do so it will be placed on ineligible
status.
Expanded diligence
performance
by
food
companies
on
supplier
quality
The recent sickening of pets from toxic ingredients blended into pet foods
was more a failure of corporate supplier quality programs than a failure of the
regulatory establishment
Globally applicable tools for a global food chain

Sourcing of food and food ingredients is now a global business, so it makes sense to
tackle food safety issues with internationally accepted and globally applicable tools
such as the ISO 22000:2005 standard.
More effective inspectionnot more inspection

State inspection resources are limited and workload is growing, so these resources
need to be targeted where they are needed most. Food producers and processors
domestic or foreignthat do not show evidence of compliance with HACCP and/or
ISO 22000:2005 and those dealing in higher-risk foodstuff should be subject to closer
surveillance.

Minerals

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Minerals

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Minerals:

Major and Trace

Minerals in a 60-kilogram (132-pound) Human Body

maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance

affects homeostasis, such as a steady

What Processing Does to

Fresh peaches Rolled oats

most abundant mineral in body

Serving size (kcalories)

Calcium in Selected Foods

Serving size (kcalories)

Phosphorus in Selected Foods

minute amount, but critical

Serving size (kcalories)

Best sources per kcalorie

Magnesium in Selected Foods

Iron in Selected Foods

Serving size (kcalories)

Zinc in Selected Foods

Remember to eat foods, not

The Trace Minerals

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

The Trace Minerals

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

The Trace Minerals

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Iron: Heme vs. Nonheme

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Both size and

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Upper level for adults: 45 mg/day

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Upper level for adults: 40 mg/day

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Upper level for adults: 11 mg/day

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Upper level for adults: 10 mg/day

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning

Chief functions in the body

Copyright 2005 Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning