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Asymptotic Notations for

Time Efficiency Analysis
Design and Analysis of Algorithms

Contents
Asymptotic Notations:
O (big oh)
(big omega)
(big theta)

Basic Efficiency Classes

In the following
discussion
t(n) & g(n): any nonnegative functions
defined on the set of natural numbers
t(n) analgorithmsrunningtime
Usually indicated by its basic operation count
C(n)

g(n) some simple function to compare

the count with

O(g(n)): Informally
O(g(n)) is a set of all functions with a
smaller or same order of growth as g(n)
Examples:
n O(n2); 100n + 5 O(n2)
n (n-1) O(n2)
n3 O(n2); 0.0001 n3 O(n2); n4+n+1 O(n2)

(g(n)): Informally
(g(n)) is a set of all functions with a
larger or same order of growth as g(n)
Examples:
n3 (n2)
n (n-1) (n2)
100n + 5 (n2)

(g(n)): Informally
(g(n)) is a set of all functions with a
same order of growth as g(n)
Examples:
an2+bn+c; a>0 (n2); n2+sin n (n2)
n (n-1) (n2); n2+log n (n2)
100n + 5 (n2); n3 (n2)

O-notation: Formally
DEF1: A function t(n) is said to be in
O(g(n)), denoted t(n) O(g(n)), if t(n) is
bounded above by some constant multiple
of g(n) for all large n

i.e. there exist some positive constant c

and some nonnegative integer n0, such
that
t(n) cg(n)forallnn0

t(n) O(g(n)): Illustration

cg(n)

doesn't
matter

t(n)

n0

Proving Example: 100n + 5 O(n2)

Remember DEF1: find c and n0, such that
t(n) cg(n)forallnn0
100n + 5 100n+n(foralln5)=101n
101n2 c=101, n0=5
100n + 5 100n+5n(foralln1)=105n
105n2 c=105, n0=1

-notation: Formally
DEF2: A function t(n) is said to be in
(g(n)), denoted t(n) (g(n)), if t(n) is
bounded below by some constant multiple
of g(n) for all large n

i.e. there exist some positive constant c

and some nonnegative integer n0, such
that
t(n) cg(n)forallnn0

t(n) (g(n)): Illustration

t(n)

doesn't
matter

cg(n)

n0

Proving Example: n3 (n2)

Remember DEF2: find c and n0, such that
t(n) cg(n)forallnn0
n3 n2 (foralln0) c=1, n0=0

-notation: Formally
DEF3: A function t(n) is said to be in
(g(n)), denoted t(n) (g(n)), if t(n) is
bounded both above and below by some
constant multiple of g(n) for all large n

i.e there exist some positive constant c1

and c2 and some nonnegative integer n0,
such that
c2g(n) t(n) c1g(n)forallnn0

t(n) (g(n)): Illustration

c1g(n)

doesn't
matter

t(n)

n0

c2g(n)

Proving Example: n(n-1) (n2)

Remember DEF3: find c1 and c2 and some
nonnegative integer n0, such that
c2g(n) t(n) c1g(n)forallnn0
The upper bound: n(n-1) = n2 n
n2 (foralln0)
The lower bound: n(n-1) = n2 n
n2 - nn(foralln2) = n2
c1 = , c2 = , n0 = 2

Basic Efficiency Classes

The time efficiency of a large number of
algorithms fall into only few classes
1, log n, n, n log n, n2, n3, 2n, n!

Multiplicative constants are ignored it is

possible that an algorithm in worse
efficiency class running faster than
algorithm in better class
Exp: Alg A: n3, alg B: 106n2; unless n > 106,
alg B runs faster than alg A

Class: 1
Name: constant
Comment:
Short of best-case efficiency
Very few reasonable examples can be given
algsrunningtimetypicallygoestoinfinity
when its input size grows infinitely large

Class: log n
Name: logarithmic
Comment:
Typically,aresultofcuttingaproblemssize
by a constant factor on each iteration of the
algorithm
Logarithmic alg cannot take into account all its
input or even a fixed fraction of it: any
algorithm that does so will have at least linear
running time

Class: n
Name: linear
Comment:
Algorithms that scan a list of size n (e.g.
sequential search) belong to this class

Class: n log n
Name: n-log-n
Comment:
Many divide-and-conquer algorithms,
including merge sort and quick sort in the
average case, fall into this class

Class: n2
Name: quadratic
Comment:
Typically, characterizes efficiency of
algorithms with two embedded loops
Standard examples: elementary sorting
algorithms and certain operations on n-by-n
matrices

Class: n3
Name: cubic
Comment:
Typically, characterizes efficiency of
algorithms with three embedded loops
Several nontrivial algorithms from linear
algebra fall into this class

Class: 2n
Name: exponential
Comment:
Typical for algorithms that generate all
subsets of an n-element set
Thetermexponentialisoftenusedtoinclude
this and faster orders of growth as well

Class: n!
Name: factorial
Comment:
Typical for algorithms that generate all
permutations of an n-element set

Useful Property
Theorem:
If t1(n) O(g1(n)) and t2(n) O(g2(n)),
then t1(n) + t2(n) O(max{g1(n), g2(n)})
The analogous assertions are true for the
and notations as well

Example
Alg to check whether an array has
identical elements:
Sort the array
Scan the sorted array to check its
consecutive elements for equality

(1) = n(n-1) comparison O(n2)

(2) = n-1 comparison O(n)
The efficiency of (1)+(2) = O(max{n2,n})
= O(n2)

Using Limits for Comparing

OoG
Aconvenientmethodforcomparingorderof
growth of two specific functions
Three principal cases:

0implies
that
has
a
smalle
OoG
t(n)
g(n

t
(
n
)

lim
cimplies
that
has
the
same
OoG
t(n)
as
g(n

g
(
n
)

implies
that
has
a
larger
OoG
t(n)
g(n

The first two cases t(n) O(g(n)); the last two

cases t(n) (g(n)); the second case alone
t(n) (g(n))

Limit-based: why
convenient?
It can take advantage of the powerful
calculus techniques developed for
computing limits, such as
LHopitalsrule

t(
n
)
t'(
n
)
lim
lim
n

g
(
n
) n
g
'(
n
)

Stirlingsformula

for
n
!

2
n
large
valu
of
n
n
n
e

Example (1)
Compare OoG of n(n-1) and n2.
2
n
(
n

1
)1
n

n
1 11

lim

lim

lim
1

n
2
2
n

n 2 n2
2
1
2

The limit = c n(n-1) (n2 )

Compare OoG of log2n and n

1
(log
e
)
log
n
(log
n
)'
n
2
n
2
2
lim

lim

lim

2
log
e
lim

0
2
1
n

n
n (
n
)' 2
n

The limit = 0 log2n has smaller order of n

Example (2)
Compare OoG of n! and 2n.

n
n
! 2
n
n

lim

lim

lim
2
n

lim
2
n

2 2
2
e
2
e

n
n
n
e
n
n n
n
n

n
n

The limit = n! (2n )

Exercises (1)
True or false:
n(n+1)/2 O(n3)
n(n+1)/2 O(n2)
n(n+1)/2 (n3)
n(n+1)/2 (n)

Indicate the class (g(n)):

(n2+1)10
(10n2+7n+3)
2n log (n+2)2+(n+2)2 log (n/2)

Exercises (2)
1. Prove that every polynomial
p(n) = aknk + ak-1nk-1 ++a0 with ak > 0
belongs to (nk)
Prove that exponential functions an have
different orders of growth for different
values of base a > 0