UNIT 2

DIODES

Topics to be coveed

The Ideal Diode

Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes

Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic

Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region-Zener Diodes

Rectifier Circuits

Limiting and Clamping Circuits

Physical Operation of Diodes

Special Diode Types.

Ideal Diode
The diode is a two terminal device designed to allow current to flow
in only one direction. The ideal (perfect) diode would be a perfect
conductor in one direction (forward bias) and a perfect insulator in
the other direction (reverse bias). In many situations, using the
ideal diode approximation is acceptable.

The positive terminal of the diode is called the anode and the
Symbol of a Diode
negative terminal the cathode.

Symbol and i-v Characteristics of ideal diode

If a negative voltage (relative to the reference direction indicated in Fig.) is a

if a positive current is applied to the ideal diode, zero voltage drop appears a

Diode as Rectifier

Input waveform
Rectifier Circuit

output waveform

During the positive half-cycles of the input sinusoid, the current flows
through the diode and vO = vI.
During the positive half-cycles of the input sinusoid, the diode is
reverse biased and no current flows through the diode. Therefore, vO =
0.

Diode Logic Gates

OR Gate

Diodes can be used to implement digital logic functions (for ex. OR

gate and AND gate).
In OR gate, if any one of the input (or all inputs) is at logic high,
the corresponding diode gets forward biased and the output is at
logic high. If all the inputs are at logic zero, all the diodes will get
reverse biased and hence the out voltage becomes zero.

Diode Logic Gates

AND Gate

In AND gate, if any one of the input (or all inputs) is at logic low, the
corresponding diode gets forward biased and the output is at logic low. If
all the inputs are at logic high, all the diodes will get reverse biased and
hence the out voltage becomes high.

Terminal Characteristics of
Junction Diodes

AND Gate

The iv characteristic of a silicon junction diode

The pn junction can conduct substantial current in the forward direction and al

Terminal Characteristics Contd

The diode iv relationship with some scales expanded and others compressed

The diode is forward-biased when v > 0

The diode is reverse-biased when v < 0
The diode enter into breakdown region when v < VZK

In forward bias region, the relation between i and v is

Where IS is a constant for a given diode at a given

temperature. IS is usually called a saturation current. IS is
also called as scale current because this is directly
proportional to the cross-sectional area of the diode.
IS Doubles in value for every 5C rise in temperature.
For i >> IS,
In reverse bias region,
If the reverse voltage exceeds the threshold voltage, the
diode enters in to Breakdown region.

Temperature dependence of the diode forward

characteristic

Since both IS and VT are functions of temperature, forward characte

Modeling the diode forward

Characteristics

To Analize the Diode forward characteristics

and to determine the Voltage drop across the
diode (VD) and diode current (ID), different
modeling methids can be used.

Contd..

Exponential method

Graphical Method

Itterative method

Piece wise Linear model

Constant voltage drop model

Ideal diode model

Small signal model

verse Breakdown Region

er Diodes

-Similar operation to conventional diode in F.B

-In R.B, it exhibits controlled breakdown (=> it allows current t

-The doping is high in this diode, which would give the breakdo
-Range of diodes available 1.2V to 200V
-Tunneling phenomenon.

Zener Diode Model

VZV
Z0 r
ZIZ

Zener Diode

Basic function :
Maintain a specific voltage across its terminals within given limits of line or loa
Typically it is used for providing a stable reference voltage for use in power sup

Design constraints :
Choose R such that

-Current through the diode < Izmax (max. current the zener can withstand ; dep
-Leakage current Izmin at the knee is assumed 10% of Izmax.

Zener Diode
Use of Zener diode:
Shunt voltage regulator (diode connected in parallel with the load).

Try the example problem in the text.

Zener Limiting

Zener diodes can used for limiting just as normal diodes. The difference to

Rectifiers

The Half-Wave Rectifier

 The half-wave rectifier utilizes alternate half-cycles

of the input sinusoid.

PIV = Vs
Efficiency=40.6%

Full-wave Rectifier
A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit that converts an ac voltage into a
pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the applied ac
voltage.
The Full Wave Rectifier can de implemented either using two diodes
or using four diodes.

In case of two diodes, the transformer secondary winding is centertapped.

In case of four diodes, the diodes are connected to form a bridge.

Full-wave Rectifier with center-tapped transformer

secondary

Circuit

Input and output waveforms

During positive half-cycle of input signal, D1 will conduct and D2 will be rever
During negative half-cycle of input signal, D2 will conduct and D1 will be reve

Peak Inverse voltage

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) is the maximum voltage the diode can withstand
For Full-wave rectifier (with center-tapped transformer),

IV = 2VS - VD

VS is the peak value of the input voltage and VD is the voltage drop across e
Peak diode current = (VS - VD )/R

Bridge Rectifier

Circuit

Input and output waveforms

During the positive half-cycles of the input voltage, Vs is positive and

thus the current is conducted through diode D1 , resistor and diode D2.
Diodes D3 and D4 will be reverse biased.
During the negative half-cycles of the input voltage, -Vs is positive and

In case of Bridge Rectifier, PIV = 2VS - VD

Advantages of Bridge Rectifier when compared to Fullwave rectifier with center-tapped transformer:
only about half as many turns are required for the secondary
winding of the transformer.
PIV is only half that of Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped
transformer.

Diode Clipper Circuits

These circuits clip off portions of signal
voltages above or below certain limits, i.e. the
circuits limit the range of the output signal.
Such a circuit may be used to protect the input
of a CMOS logic gate against static.

Diode Clipper Circuits

Diode Clipper Circuits

When the diode is off the output of these
circuits resembles a voltage divider
L
R
vo
v
i

LR
S
R

Diode Clipper Circuits

If RS << RL

v0 vi

The level at which the signal is clipped can be

adjusted by adding a d.c. bias voltage in
series with the diode.

Clamper Circuits
The clamping network clamp a signal to different dc
level without altering the wave-shape.
The network will have a capacitor, a diode and a
resistive element.
The magnitude of R and C must be chosen such that the
time constant t = RC is large enough to ensure that the
voltage across the capacitor does not discharge
significantly during the interval the diode is nonconducting
Used in TV receivers as a DC restorer

Positive Clamper
The circuit for a positive clamper is shown in the
figure. During the negative half cycle of the input
signal, the diode conducts and acts like a short
circuit. The output voltage Vo 0 volts . The
capacitor is charged to the peak value of input
voltage Vm. and it behaves like a battery. During
the positive half of the input signal, the diode
does not conduct and acts as an open circuit.
Hence the output voltage Vo Vm+ Vm This gives
a positively clamped voltage.

Contd..

Negative Clamper
During the positive half cycle the diode
conducts and acts like a short circuit. The
capacitor charges to peak value of input
voltage Vm. During this interval the output Vo
which is taken across the short circuit will be
zero During the negative half cycle, the diode
is open. The output voltage can be found by
applying KVL.

Contd..

The Physical Principles of Diode

Intrinsic (pure) Semiconductors
Intrinsic(pure) silicon

A hole

A free electron
An electron-hole pair is created when an electron get excited by thermal or light energy;
Recombination occurs when an electron loses energy and falls back into a hole.

The Physical Principles of Diode

Intrinsic (pure) Semiconductors
Holes also conduct current. In reality, its the movement of all the other electrons. The

Holes have positive charge.

Current flows in the same direction as the holes move.

Both electrons and holes carry current-- carriers.

In intrinsic semiconductors the electron and hole concentrations are
The intrinsic concentration depends exponentially on temperature.
At room temp (300K), the intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon is:

10
3
n

1
.
5

10
/
cm
i

equal because c

The Physical Principles of Diode

Phosphorus Doping (N-type)

Phosphorus has 5 valence electrons.

P atoms will sit in the location of a Si atom in the lattice, to avoid breaking symmetry, but e
These electrons depends on the amounts of the two materials.

The Physical Principles of Diode

Phosphorus Doping (N-type)

Electrons---Majority carrier.
Holes---Minority carrier

Phosphorus---Donor materials.
2
2
pn
p
p
n
in
i
i
i

In equilibrium,
At room temp (300K), if 1/1010 donors are added to the intrinsic silicon,

then the electron carrier concentration is about 1013cm3; the hole carrier concentration is about 106cm3.
Phosphorus
Intrinsic silicon

89
.3

cm
;

2
.14

10

cm

The Physical Principles of Diode

Boron Doping (P-type)

Holes---Majority carrier;

Electrons---Minority carrier

Boron---acceptor materials.

Boron has 3 valence electrons.

B will sit at a lattice site, but the adjacent Si atoms lack an electron to fill its shell. This cr

The Physical Principles of Diode

PN Junction

N-type materials: Doping Si with a Group V element, providing extra electrons (n for n
P-type materials: Doping Si with a Group III element, providing extra holes (p for posit

What happens when P-type meets N-type?

The Physical Principles of Diode

PN Junction
What happens when P-type meets N-type?
Holes diffuse from the P-type into the N-type, electrons diffuse from the N-type
into the P-type, creating a diffusion current.
Once the holes [electrons] cross into the N-type [P-type] region, they recombine
with the electrons [holes].
This recombination strips the n-type [P-type] of its electrons near the
boundary, creating an electric field due to the positive and negative bound
charges.
The region stripped of carriers is called the space-charge region, or depletion
region.
V0 is the contact potential that exists due to the electric field. Typically, at room

temp, V0 is 0.5~0.8V.
Some carriers are generated (thermally) and make their way into the depletion region where they are whisked away by the electric field, crea

The Physical Principles of Diode

PN Junction
What happens when P-type meets N-type?

There are two mechanisms by which mobile carriers move in

semiconductors resulting in current flow
Diffusion
Majority carriers move (diffuse) from a place of higher
concentration to a place of lower concentration
Drift
Minority carrier movement is induced by the electric field.
In equilibrium, diffusion current (ID) is balanced by drift current (IS).
So, there is no net current flow.

The Physical Principles of Diode

PN Junction
Forward bias: apply a positive voltage to the P-type, negative to N-type.

Add more majority carriers to both sides

shrink the depletion region lower V0 diffusion curren

Decrease the built-in potential, lower

the barrier height.
Increase the number of carriers able to
diffuse across the barrier
Diffusion current increases
Drift current remains the same. The
drift current is essentially constant, as
it is dependent on temperature.
Current flows from p to n

The Physical Principles of Diode

PN Junction
Reverse bias: apply a negative voltage to the P-type, positive to N-type.

Increase the built-in potential, increase the barrier he

Decrease the number of carriers able to diffuse across
Diffusion current decreases.
Drift current remains the same
Almost no current flows. Reverse leakage current, IS, is

The Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD)

 The Schottky-barrier diode (SBD) is formed by

bringing metal into contact with a moderately
doped n-type semiconductor material.
The resulting metalsemiconductor junction
behaves like a diode, conducting current in one
direction (from the metal anode to the
semiconductor cathode) and acting as an open
circuit in the other, and is known as
the Schottky-barrier diode

currentvoltage characteristic of the

SBD
In the SBD, current is conducted by majority
carriers (electrons).
The forward voltage drop of a conducting SBD is
lower than that of a pn-junction diode.
For example, an SBD made of silicon exhibits a
forward voltage drop of 0.3 V to 0.5 V, compared to
the 0.6 V to 0.8 V found in silicon pn-junction
diodes.
SBDs can also be made of gallium arsenide (GaAs),
but they exhibit forward voltage drops of about 0.7
V.

Applications
In the design of a special form of bipolar-transistor
logic circuits, known as Schottky-TTL
(Transistor-Transistor Logic).
Ultra high-speed switching
Voltage clamping
Protection circuits

Varactors

One characteristic of any PN junction is an inherent capacitance

When the junction is reverse biased, increasing the applied voltage will cause the depletion regio

junction capacitance Cj.

Cj is a function of the reverse-bias voltage VR.

Varactors

One characteristic of any PN junction is an inherent capacitance

When the junction is reverse biased, increasing the applied voltage will cause the depletion regio

junction capacitance Cj.

Cj is a function of the reverse-bias voltage VR.