Fluid Mechanics II

B.S. Mechanical Engineering

4th Semester

Introduction
GAS DYNAMICS
It is the branch of fluid mechanics concerned with causes and effects
arising from the motion of compressible fluids particularly gases.
Fluid Mechanics
Statics

Fluid Dynamics

Aerodynamics Hydrodynamics Gas Dynamics

In this subject we are concerned with following fundamental physical laws
1. Law of conservation of mass
2. Newtons second law of motion
3. First law of thermodynamics
4. Second law of thermodynamics
Above laws are applicable to all fluids and all flow processes
2
Above laws are applied to a fluid utilizing the continuum concept

Continuum
All materials, solid or fluid, are composed of molecules discretely
spread and in continuous motion.
However, in dealing with fluid-flow relations on a mathematical basis, it
is necessary to replace the actual molecular structure by a hypothetical
continuous medium, called the continuum
Continuum postulate assumes that every differential element of body of
fluid contains a large number of molecules such that the average

Perfect Gas
A gas in which intermolecular forces are negligible
Such a gas follows
pv=RT (Rair = 287 J/kg.K= 1716 ft.lb/Slug.R)
Mostly molecules are on the average 10 molecular diameters apart so
intermolecular forces are negligible
3

Internal Energy
It comprises of the
1. Translational kinetic energy of the gas molecules
2. Rotational kinetic energy of the gas molecules
3. Vibrational kinetic energy of the gas molecule due to atoms
4. Electronic energy due to electrons
of all the molecules in a given volume.

Enthalpy
By definition Enthalpy is
For a perfect gas, both u
and h are function of t only

u = cv t
h = cp t

du = cv dt
dh = cp dt
Also

For a calorically perfect

gas, cp and cv are constant

cp - cv = R

First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it can be
changed from one form to another form.
1. Total Energy is conserved
2. This Law is based on experience and no phenomenon contradicts it
3. Heat and work are mutually inter-convertible and fixed amount per
unit mass is needed for every degree rise of temperature
For a cyclic process of closed system of mass m

Line integral vanishes for the closed

curve so the integral defines a property
E is the stored
energy
On per unit
mass basis

The equation is valid

for both Reversible
and Irreversible
processes
For Irreversible
processes

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Heat is a relatively crude form of energy so it can not be converted
into work completely
Only a portion of heat can be converted into work
Every natural system will change spontaneously and reach
equilibrium and no further change will be possible
For a closed system that undergoes
a cyclic change, it may be shown

Hence
For a closed system
If heat is added reversibly then
or

For Reversible Adiabatic Process

For Irreversible
Adiabatic Process
For a Diabetic Process
6

Thermodynamic Properties of a Perfect Gas

Entropy Change

Also

For a reversible process

of Thermally perfect gas
Integrating both equations
Considering calorically
perfect gas

So

s2 s1 cv ln

t2
v
R ln 2
t1
v1

tds dh vdp

s2 s1 c p ln

t2
p
R ln 2
t1
p1

Isentropic Relations
0 c p ln

t
v
0 cv ln 2 R ln 2
t1
v1

v2 t2

v1 t1

2 t2

1 t1

1
1

1
1

t2
p
R ln 2
t1
p1

p2 t 2 1

p1 t1

Where

Combining all the relations

cv
1

R 1

Where

t 2 1
p2 2

p1 1
t1

cp
R

1
7

Compressibility
Amount by which a substance can be compressed is given by a property
compressibility
Compressibility is
fractional change in
volume per unit change in
pressure

Isothermal Compressibility

Rise in temp is controlled by

some heat transfer mechanism

Isentropic Compressibility
Compressibility in
the form of density

Another index

Liquid d is small
Gas d
Is small for low speed flow
8
Is large for high speed flow

Governing Equations for Compressible Flows

Following are the Laws
1. Law of conservation of mass
2. Newtons second law of motion
3. First law of thermodynamics
4. Second law of thermodynamics

Following are the Governing Equations

1. Continuity Equation
2. Momentum Equation
3. Energy Equation
4. Entropy Equation

Continuity Equation
Integral
Form

Differential
Form

Momentum Equation

Integral
Form
Differential
Form

Governing Equations for Compressible Flows, contd

Energy Equation

Integral
Form
Differential
Form
For steady adiabatic inviscid flow without body forces along a streamline,
the energy equations becomes

10

1D Continuity & Momentum Equations

Continuity Eq

Steady State

1D inlet/outlet

Momentum Eq
Steady Flow

Frictionless Flow
11

Stagnation Properties

12

Speed of Sound
Stationary observer
Unsteady Case

Observer moving with pressure wave

Steady Case

Flow is 1 Dimensional

13

Speed of Sound

Momentum eq.
pdA V( V.dA)
A

For the control volume shown

[(c dV )] m
(c)
pA ( p dp) A m

Simplifying
dV
dV
dp m
Ac
cdV
A
A

From continuity Eq.

dp
c
d

Ac d A c dV
Put in
momentum eq

dV c

Solving for dV
d

14

Speed of Sound
1. Changes within wave are slight

Flow is reversible

2. No heat addition
Hence, the process inside wave is isentropic, so
p
c

For calorically perfect gas

p1 1

p2 2

p co nst

p p
p
So 1

Hence c p

c RT

But

RT

15

Mach Number
It is the ratio of local fluid speed V to its acoustic speed

16

Special Forms of Energy Equations

17

Special Forms of Energy Equations

18

Steady, 1-D Isentropic Flow With Area Change,

Governing Eqs.
Governing equation for Steady 1-D Flow
With Area Change;
Assumptions:
1. No body forces, gdz = 0
2. No friction, Ff = 0
3. No heat Transfer, adiabatic flow, Q = 0
4. No drag force, D = 0
5. No work done, W = 0
Continuity Equation

Momentum Equation

m AV constant

dp VdV 0

Entropy Equation

Energy Equation
V2
h
constant H
2

s constant
19

Steady, 1-D Isentropic Flow Process With Area Change

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

For An Isentropic Process

all the thermodynamic states lie on a
vertical line on h-s plot
Upper limit of enthalpy is point a, showing
zero KE and h=H
Lower limit of enthalpy is point b, showing

h=0 but maximum isentropic speed Vmax

All the stagnation properties H, P, T, o and
so are constant.
All this is due to only one driving potential
i.e area change

Comparison Of Adiabatic, Frictionless And Adiabatic, Frictional Flow

1. Differential equations are valid for both processes
2. Difference lies in the integration of these equations
3. For given set of initial conditions both processes have different final
conditions

20

Comparison, Isentropic & Non-isentropic Processes, contd.

Graphic representation

Expansion

Compression

21

Comparison, Isentropic & Non-isentropic Processes

Comparison contd.
4. Integrate energy eq. for isentropic flow
h2'

V2'

h1

V1

dh VdV

5. Integrate energy equation for adiabatic flow with friction

h2

V2

h1

V1

dh VdV

6. Intuition tells that for frictional flow the maximum velocity thee fluid can
attain will be less than that for isentropic flow V2 V2
7. Consequently one can say that the maximum enthalpy for frictional flow
will always be greater than that for the isentropic flow h2 h2
Note: point 6 and 7 is valid for positive or negative area changes, i.e.
Expansion or Compression
22

Effect of Area Change on Flow Properties

Continuity Eq.

m AV constant
Differentiate logarithmically
d

dA dV

A V

Momentum Eq.

dp VdV 0
Can be written as

Speed of Sound
p
a
s
2

For isentropic flow

dp

dV
V
0

V
2

a 2 d dp

Combine the three equations and use the definition of Mach Number to get

dA
dV
2
M 1
A
V

dA
2 p dp
1 M
2
A

These equations suggest the manner in which area should change to

accomplish the required expansion or compression of a compressible25fluid

Effect of Area Change on Flow Properties, contd.

(a) Nozzle flow/action
The area change which shows
the effect of increase in
velocity with decrease in
pressure
(b) Diffuser flow/action

Table

Relationship between dA & dM for Steady

1-D Isentropic flow
M
dA
< 1.0
> 1.0
dA < 0
dA > 0

dM > 0
dM < 0

dM < 0
dM > 0

The area change which shows

the effect of decrease in
velocity with increase in
pressure

dA
dV
2
M 1
A
V

26

Effect of Area Change on Flow Properties, Choking

WHAT WOULD HAPPEN
M
dA
ONCE THE
< 1.0
> 1.0
<0
dM
>0
dM < 0
SONIC CONDITIONS ARE REACHED & AREAdA
CHANGE
CONTINUES
For subsonic/supersonic flow
Once M=1 at a particular section of converging
section then
What would be M2, whereas dA < 0
There can be two possibilities/assumptions
1. M2 < M1
2. M2 > M1
Table suggests, that for dA < 0 dM > 0
For: M2 < M1
Contradiction with basic assumption, M2 < 27
M1

Effect of Area Change, Choking, contd. -2

Table suggests, that for dA < 0 dM < 0
For: M2 > M1
Contradiction with basic assumption, M2 > M1
dA
dA < 0

M
< 1.0

> 1.0

dM > 0

dM < 0

The Table Is In Fact A Representation Of The Conservation Laws

Under Isentropic Conditions
THESE CONSERVATIONS ARE NEVER VOILATED BY NATURE
28

Effect of Area Change, Choking, contd. -3M

dA
< 1.0 AND;> 1.0
WHAT ABOUT HAVING THE FOLLOWING CONFIGURATION
dA > 0
dM < 0
dM > 0
ONCE THE SONIC CONDITIONS ARE REACHED
Now consider the possibilities
M 2 < M1

OR

M 2 > M1

Table suggests, that for

dA > 0, dM < 0 : dA > 0, dM > 0
Table suggests, that for
Both the possibilities the conservation laws are not violated
Once M=1 is achieved at the throat, then how the downstream M will change
in the diverging section. We need to answer this query
29

Effect of Area Change, Choking, contd. -3

Ans: The downstream flow can be either subsonic or supersonic
Which one of this is possible
The subsonic or supersonic flow in the downstream section depends
on the downstream physical boundary conditions
at the exit section of the flow passage
IMPORTANT INFERENCES
For supersonic flow starting from
rest

For subsonic flow starting from

supersonic flow

One needs a C-D geometry

Throat will give the max mass flow
rate corresponding to throat velocity.
'
Vt ' a* m mmax
m* at A*

This CD geometry is named as

De Laval Nozzle
30

Condition for Maximum Isentropic Mass Flow Rate

??
What is condition for max m
mmax AV const

Logarithmically Differentiating

1 dA 1 dV 1 d

0
A dx V dx dx
dVt
Vt d t

dx
t dx

At throat

Momentum eq. for isentropic flow

dp VdV 0

dp
2
*2
Vt
a a
d t

dVt
1 dpt

dx
tVt dx

31

Critical Flow Area

If a perfect gas is expanded isentropically then it will attain critical
speed while flowing through an area A* called critical throat area

Writing continuity equation for an infinite reservoir and critical area

m AV * A*a* constant

A *a* * Rt *

*
A
V
V

Writing *, t* in terms of local and stagnation property ratios

1 1

A 1 1

*
A 2 p 2 p 1

P P

for isentropic flow

32

Critical Flow Area, contd. - 2

Graphical Representation of this equation

Critical area ratio as a

function of pressure ratio
for = 1.4

A
1 2 1 2

1
*
A
M 1
2

1 2 1

Critical area ratio as a

function of M reported in gas
tables for isentropic flow
33

Properties and Property Ratios

Property Ratios for
isentropic flow with
area change
Limiting Values of the
Property Ratios for the
Steady One-D Isentropic
Flow of a Perfect Gas

34

Properties and Property Ratios

For CHOKED flow where M=1
The property ratios for isentropic flow leads to t*, p* and *

Critical Temperature

Critical Pressure

2
t =
T

2
p * =

Critical Density
2
=

Critical / Max Mass flow rate

*

m =

A *P

RT

A *P

ao

Critical Velocity

2
=

V =a Rt
*

2 1

2 RT

ao
1
2

2 2

35

Effect of Area Change On Flow Properties

Property

dA < 0
dA > 0
M<1 M>1 M<1 M>1

M
p
t

+
-

+
+

+
+

+
-

V
a

+
-

+
+

+
+

+
-

36

Example 1

For A/A* = 2.193; Me= 2.3; p0/p=12.5; 0/ =6.067; T0/T = 2.058

p0,e = 5 atm; T0,e = 520oR

T0/T = 2.058 => T = 520/2.058 = 252.7oR

p0/p=12.5 => p = 5/12.5=0.4 atm
= p/RT= 0.4x 2116/(1716x252.7) = 0.00195 slug/ft3
a = (RT)0.5=(1.4x1716x252.7)0.5=779.2 ft/sec
37

Example 2

p0/pe = 1/0.3143 = 3.182

Me = 1.4 and Ae/A* = 1.115

38

Example 3

m* = *A*u*
0 = p0/RT0= 5x 2116/(1716x520) = 0.01186 slug/ft3

* / 0 = 0.638
T* / T0 = 0.833

* = 0.638 x 0.01186 = 0.007519 slug/ft3

T* = 0.833 x 520 = 433.2 oR

39

Example 4
Repeat example 3 with following formula

P0 = 5 atm = 5 x 2116 = 10580 lb/ft2

A* = 4/144 = 0.02778 ft2

40

Example 5

p0/p e= 1/0.947 = 1.056

Ae/At = 1.616; Ae/A* = 2.166
As Ae/At < Ae/A* => At > A*
So flow is subsonic at the throat

Mt = 0.5; pt = 0.843 atm

41

Effect of Downstream Physical Boundary Conditions

42

43

Effect of Back Pressure on C-D Nozzle

44

Boundary Layer Theory

EXTERNAL FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
1. Flow may be steady or unsteady
2. Flow depends on the nature of the body
a.
b.
c.

3.

Two dimensional objects

Axisymmetric bodies
Three dimensional bodies

Flow depends on the shape of the body

a.
b.

Streamlined Bodies
Blunt Bodies

2 D body

Axisymmetric body

3D body

Blunt

Streamlined

Streamlined 45

Related Equations of Flow

Continuity Eq

Momentum Eq

46

Lift and Drag

47

Reynolds # and Geometry Effects

Flow field is a function of shape of the body
For a given shaped object flow field depends on:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Size
Orientation
Speed
Fluid Properties

Mach Number
Froude Number
Reynolds Number

Extreme limits????

lV
Re

Generally, Re >> 1 or Re << 1

In most of situations

For

For Water or Air

0.01 m < l <10 m
0.01 m/sec < U < 100 m/sec
Gives 10 < Re < 109

Re < 1 Viscosity Dominated Flow

Re > 100 Inertia Dominated Flow
Most familiar flows are dominated
by Inertia
48

Reynolds # and Geometry Effects, contd.

Flow over Flat Plate

Flow is viscous in a
Specific Region
and Inviscid
everywhere else
Boundary Layer

49

Reynolds # and Geometry Effects, contd.

Flow over Circular Cylinder

Again Viscous
effects are
contained in a
Specific Region

The Specific
Region is called
Boundary Layer

50

Boundary Layer Properties

Boundary Layer is a region in which
1. Viscous effects are present
2. Velocity Gradients are present and velocity at wall is zero (No slip)
3. Flow velocity increases normal to the surface and reaches U

u
Velocity gradient causes generation of shear stress at wall
w
Thickness of Boundary layer is represented by
y w
There is no sharp edge of Boundary layer y= where u = 0.99 U 51

Boundary Layer Properties, cont.

Displacement Thickness *
It is an index proportional to missing volume flow rate due to presence
of boundary layer

A = Actual flow rate =

udy

B= hypothetical flow rate if BL were not there =

B A = Missing Flow Rate = U u dy

0
Missing Flow Rate may also be expressed as =

Comparing above eqs. We have:

Udy

U *

1
U

dy

52

Boundary Layer Properties, cont.

Displacement Thickness *
2. It is the distance through which the external inviscid flow is displaced by
the presence of boundary layer

53

Boundary Layer Properties, cont.

Momentum Thickness
It is an index proportional to missing momentum due to presence of
boundary layer

It is used for
determining the drag
on the object
Mass flow across a segment dy is as dm udy
2

u
dy
A = Actual Momentum flow across dy =

B= hypothetical Momentum flow if BL were not there = u (U u )dy

B A = Total Missing Momentum Flow = u U u dy
0
2
Total Missing Momentum Flow = U
Comparing above eqs. We have: y u 1 u dy
0 U U
y

54

Von Karmans Analysis of Flat Plate

As a 1st Step We consider the
Integral Analysis of Flat Plate

Consider a Control Volume

for the Flow over Flat Plate
1. From (0, 0) to (0, h): a one-dimensional inlet, V . n = -U
2. From (0, h) to (L, ): a streamline, no shear, V . n = 0
3. From (L, ) to (L, 0): a two-dimensional outlet, V . n = +u(y)
4. From (L, 0) to (0, 0): a streamline just above the plate surface, V . n = 0,
shear forces summing to the drag force Di acting from the plate onto
the retarded fluid
The only force acting is drag due to shear stress at the surface of plate
0
x- Momentum Eq.
55

Karmans Analysis of Flat Plate, contd.

Now, we need to find
for all sides
Side 1

V . n = -U
dA = b dy
u=U
2
u

(
V
.
n
)
dA

U
bh Side 3 V . n = u(y)
CS

dA = b dy

Side 2
It is a streamline and there
must be no flow across
streamline, so
V.n=0

CS

u (V .n)dA 0

u (V .n)dA b u 2 dy

Side 4

Solid wall so, V . n = 0

Shear force = -D

CS

Hence

2
F

U
bh

b
u
x
dy
2

D U bh b u 2 dy
2

56

Karmans Analysis of Flat Plate, contd.

As relation b/w h and is not known, so we
must remove h from the result given above
Applying Continuity Equation

(1)

Comparing (1) and (2)

Also drag may be calculated from

shear stress distribution

Valid for both Laminar &

Turbulent Flows
(2)

57

Karmans Analysis of Flat Plate, contd.

For Laminar Flow, Karman used
following Velocity Profile

Momentum Thickness
comes out to be

Wall Shear

2U 1/ 2
w
Re
5.5 x
and

Boundary layer is thin if

/x 0.1
Rex = 2500
Above relations are valid
for 2500 Rex 3 x 106
(Laminar Flow)

58

Example 1 Integral Momentum Analysis

Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate at
y = 0. The boundary layer velocity profile is approximated as u = U y/ for
0 y and u = U for y > . Determine the shear stress by using the
momentum integral equation
and

so
Hence

59

Boundary Layer Equations

Internal Flows

Analytical solutions of NS Eqs. Exist for Laminar Flow in

Simple Geometries. No solution exists for Turbulent flow

External Flows
No Analytical solutions of NS Eqs. Exist.
Other methods used are:
1. Numerical Solution
2. Experimental
3. BL Theory
Boundary Layer Theory

Approximations introduced to NS result in great simplifications

Only two equations need to be solved in stead of three eqs. (2-D, Isothermal)
Can predict separation
Cannot model separated flows
60

Boundary Layer Equations, contd.

Assumptions
1.
2.
3.
4.

Under these Assumptions NS become

2-D Flow
Steady state flow
No gravity effects
Incompressible flow
To be solved for u, v and p
B.C.s are no-slip; inlet and exit
Too difficult to be solved analytically

For High Reynolds Number Flows

Following Approximations Apply:
61

Boundary Layer Equations, contd.

1. y-Momentum eq. can be entirely ignored
2. Pressure varies only along boundary layer and not through it
3. The pressure-gradient along boundary layer is assumed to be known in
advance from Bernoullis equation applied to the outer inviscid flow
2u
2u
2u
( 2 ) because 2
y
x
y 2

4. The diffusion term in x- Momentum eq. reduces to

5. Continuity equation is still valid u u
u
dU
(u
v )
U
6. Momentum equation becomes: x y
y
dx
7. There are two equations only but non-linear
2

u v
Continuity x y 0

Momentum Along Wall u

At y=0; u = v= 0
BCs At y=; u = U(x)

u
u
dU 1
v
U

x
y
dx y
62

The Flat Plate Boundary Layer; Laminar Flow

Inviscid flow over a flat plate yields a constant pressure over the surface (from
Bernoullis Eq) so: p / x 0

Mathematical behavior of above equations is parabolic

Balsius used following transformation
Substituting above transformation in Boundary Layer equations, he got

BCs
He solved the above equation:

and
63

The Flat Plate Boundary Layer; Laminar Flow

Solution is self-similar
Other Results

Shape Factor H is the ratio of

Displacement Thickness to
Momentum Thickness and is given by
64

Example Flat Plate Boundary Layer

Air flows over a flat plate of length l = 2 ft such that the Reynolds
number based on the plate length is Re = 2x105. Plot the boundary
layer thickness for 0 x l
Ul
Re 2 105 1.57 104 l = 2 ft
5
U

Re
2 10
Re = 2 x105
l
2

= 1.57 x 10-4 ft2/s

15.7 ft / sec
B L Thickness (ft)

0.5

Flow as laminar as Re < 5 x 105

B L Thickness (ft)

0.25

0.025

1.57 10 x
5
5
U
15.7

0.0158 x

0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0

0.5

1
1.5
x Distance (ft)

2.5

0
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

x Distance (ft)

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

65

Transition to Turbulent Boundary Layers

Transition to turbulent boundary layer
occurs if plate is long enough
Transition is governed by Reynolds No.
Transition depends upon
1. Roughness of surface
2. Curvature of surface
3. Disturbances in the free-stream flow
Range of Reynolds No: 2 x 105 to 3 x 106
Mostly Rexcr = 5 x 105

66

Turbulent Boundary Layers

There is no exact solution for turbulent boundary layer flow
Approximate turbulent boundary layer results can be obtained by use
of the momentum integral

67

Displacement Thickness
Shape Factor
Above Results are for Turbulent flow
Over Smooth Flat Plate. For Fully
Rough Plate, Empirical relations are
For Transition Region
Following Relations Hold

Turbulent Boundary Layers, contd.

68

Example 4 Flat Plate Boundary Layer

An airplane flies at a speed of 400 mph at an altitude of 10,000 ft. If the
boundary layers on the wing surfaces behave as those on a flat late,
estimate the extent of laminar boundary layer flow along the wing. Assume a
transitional Reynolds number of 5 x 105.If the airplane maintains its 400-mph
speed but descends to sea level elevation, will the portion of the wing
covered by a laminar boundary layer increase or decrease compared with its
value at 10,000 ft?
At 10,000 ft

At Sea level

l
= 0.00174 slug / ft3 Recr Ul 5 105 0.00174 587
7

3.5

10
-7
2
= 3.5 x 10 lb. s/ft
U = 400 mph = 587 ft /s l 0.171 ft

ft3

Recr

Ul
0.00234 587 l
5 105

3.76 107

= 0.00234 slug /
= 3.76x 10-7 lb. s/ft2 l 0.137 ft
U = 400 mph = 587 ft /s

69

Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradient

Boundary Layer Theory is valid before separation only as the thickness of
region of viscous increases after separation
Separation is caused by excessive momentum loss due to adverse
pressure gradient i.e. dp/dx > 0
Separation is never seen in favorable pressure gradient i.e. dp/dx < 0

Flow Separation

70

Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradient, contd

u
u
dU 1
u
v
U

x
y
dx y

At wall u=v=0 so

Second derivative is +ve at the wall and must be negative in free stream71 so it
must pass through zero value in between. (Point of Inflection)

Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradient, contd

72

Thwaites Method for BL Separation

Steps
1. Find from

He defined

S ( )
U
w

Thwaites correlated dimensionless

shear stress with as

2. Find = 2U/
3. Compare it with -0.09 to find
separation point
4. Find U S ( )

For Flat Plate

=-0.09 for separation

=0
U
=0
73
0 = 0

Example 5 Laminar Integral Theory

In 1957, Gortler calculated separation for Laminar flow to be xsep/L = 0.159
for the following adverse gradient profile
U

U0
(1 x / L)

Compare with Thwaitess method assuming 0 = 0

6
4

0.45

L
x
x

2

1 1 1
4U 0 L L

Where

0.45
2
U 06

Now

x
0.158
L sep

6 x

x
5
U
1

0 0 L dx

dU

dx
2

4
0.45
x

1 1
4 L

U0
dU
1

dx
(1 x / L) 2 L

For separation

1%
74

Experimental External Flows

Boundary Layer Theory Fails after Separation
There is no satisfactory theory for forces on an arbitrary body
Forces and Moment acting on Immersed Bodies

1. Drag and Rolling Moment

2. Lift and Yaw Moment
3. Side Force and Pitching Moment
Simplifications Introduced

1. Body Symmetry about Lift-Drag

Axis; Side force, Yaw and Roll
Vanish
2. Body having 2 Planes of
Symmetry; Lift, Side force and all
moments vanish
75

Drag
Drag is a net force in direction of flow due to Pressure and Shear Forces
Pressure and Shear stress distributions are needed to calculate it
It can be computed by various approaches
1. Analytical Methods
2. Computational Fluid Dynamics
3. Experimental Investigations
Classification of Drag

Skin Friction Drag

It is a function of wall shear stress and orientation of the surface
It is generally a small portion of overall drag for blunt bodies
It is significant for Streamlined Bodies or for low Reynolds
Number flow
Pressure (Form) Drag
It is a function magnitude of pressure and orientation of the surface
It is significant for Blunt Bodies at high Reynolds Numbers
Absent for streamlined bodies at lower angle of attack
76
Total Drag = Pressure (Form) Drag + Skin Friction Drag

Drag Coefficient Data

Drag Coefficient = f(Shape; Re; Ma; Fr; /l)
6
Streamlined
cylinder
at
Re
=
10
Shape Dependence
Effect of Streamlining

(b)

(a)

(c)

A circular cylinder Thickness = 1 / 8 of (c) and

X-section = 1/300 of (c)
(d)
Reynolds Number Dependence

CD = 0.5

CD = 0.2
77

Drag Coefficient Data, contd.

Surface Roughness Dependence
Roughness effect is seen only for Turbulent Flows
1. It may alter the wall shear stress
2. It may cause early transition
So
1. It increases drag for streamlined bodies
2. It decreases drag for blunt bodies

78

Drag Coefficient Data, contd.

79

Drag Coefficient Data, contd.

80

Lift
Lift is force experienced by a body normal to free-stream If the object is
not symmetrical or if it does not produce a symmetrical flow field.
Some objects, such as an airfoil, are designed to generate lift.
Other objects are designed to reduce the lift generated
The lift can be determined if the distributions of pressure and wall shear
stress around the entire body are known.
Generally experimental data for lift is presented in the form of lift
coefficient:
Generally,
CL = f(shape, Re, Ma, Fr, /l)

81

Airfoils

82

CL and CD Data of Airfoils

Lift and drag coefficient data are given as a function of angle of attack, and
aspect ratio.
The aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of the square of the wing span to the
planform area, A = b2/A.
If the chord length, c, is constant along the length of the wing (a rectangular
planform wing), this reduces to b/c.

83

Airfoils Stall

84

High Lift Devices

85