Design of Machinery

Drilling

Boring

Shaping

Broaching

Reaming

Grainding

Honing

What are important parameters of tools?

Metal Cutting History

Beginning : Industrial Revolution
17601860 : Machine Tools
1860 : Steel Mass Production
1900 : HSS
1920 : Cemented Carbide

Machining
As the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed

Machining Operations
Most important machining operations:

Turning

.1

Drilling

.2

Milling

.3

Other machining operations:

Shaping and planing

Broaching

Sawing

(a)

(b)

1. Turning
Single point cutting tool
removes material from
a rotating workpiece to
form a cylindrical shape

2. Drilling
Used to create a round
hole, usually by means
of a rotating tool (drill
bit) with two cutting
edges

3. Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
across work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling

Cutting Tool Classification

Single-Point Tools .1
Multiple Cutting Edge Tools .2

Cutting Conditions in Machining

Material removal rate can
be computed as
MRR =Vfd
v = cutting speed;
f = feed;
d = depth of cut

Chip Formation

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather

than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting
from tool-chip friction.

Four Basic Types of Chip in

Machining
Discontinuous chip .1
Continuous chip .2
Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE) .3

1. Discontinuous Chip

work materials
cutting speeds
feed and depth of cut
tool-chip friction

Conditions which favor this type of

chip
Brittle work material
Small rake angles on cutting
tools
Coarse machining feeds
Low cutting speeds
Major disadvantagecould
result in poor surface finish

2. Continuous Chip

work materials
cutting speeds
feeds and depths
Sharp cutting edge
tool-chip friction
Conditions which favor this type of
chip:
Ductile work
Fine feeds
Sharp cutting tools
Larger rake angles
High cutting speeds
Proper coolants

3. Continuous with BUE

Same process as continuous, but
as the metal begins to flow up the
chip-tool zone, small particles of
the metal begin to adhere or weld
themselves to the edge of the
cutting tool. As the particles
continue to weld to the tool it
effects the cutting action of the
tool.

materials
Low-to-medium cutting speeds
Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to adhere to
rake face
BUE forms, then breaks off,
cyclically

Problems

Welded edges break off and can

become embedded in workpiece
Decreases tool life
Can result in poor surface finishes

Forces Acting on Chip

Friction force F and Normal force to

friction N
Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear
Fn

Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in
balance:
R' and R must be:

Cutting Force and Thrust Force

F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
Forces acting on the
are the only forces
that can be measured:
Cutting force
Thrust force

Orthogonal Cutting Model Chip Thickness Ratio

to
r
tc

where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of

the chip prior to chip formation; and tc = chip
thickness after separation

Chip thickness after cut always greater than

than 1.0
before, so chip ratio

Determining Shear Plane Angle

Based on the geometric parameters of the
orthogonal model, the shear plane angle
can be determined as:
r cos
tan
1 r sin

where r = chip ratio, and = rake angle

Forces in Metal Cutting

Equations can be derived to relate the forces that cannot be
measured to the forces that can be measured:

F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
Based on these calculated force, shear stress and coefficient of
friction can be determined

Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle

shear
Higher shear plane angle means
shear force, cutting
plane which means
forces, power, and temperature

Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher with a resulting lower shear
plane area; (b) smaller with a corresponding larger shear plane
area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase
shear angle according to the Merchant equation

Rake Angles
It can be positive or negative
Positive = reduced cutting forces
Negative = typically used to machine harder
metals-heavy cuts

Rake Angles
Small to medium rake angles cause:
high compression
high tool forces
high friction
result = Thickhighly deformed hot chips

Rake Angles
Larger positive rake
angles
Reduce compression
and less chance of a
discontinuous chip
Reduce forces
Reduce friction
Result = A thinner,
less deformed, and
cooler chip.

Rake Angles
Problems.as we increase the angle:
Reduce strength of tool
Reduce the capacity of the tool to conduct
heat away from the cutting edge.

Negative Rake Tools

Typical tool materials which utilize
negative rakes are:
Carbide
Diamonds
Ceramics

These materials tend to be much more

brittle than HSS but they hold superior
hardness at high temperatures.

Negative Rake Tools

Summary Positive vs. Negative

Rake Angles
Positive rake angles
Reduced cutting forces
Smaller deflection of work, tool holder, and
machine
Creates large shear angle, reduced friction
and heat
Allows chip to move freely up the chip-tool
zone
Generally used for continuous cuts on ductile
materials which are not to hard or brittle

Summary Positive vs. Negative

Rake Angles
Negative rake angles
Initial shock of work to tool is on the face of
the tool and not on the point or edge.
Higher cutting speeds/feeds can be employed