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stagnant film
qs hA Tw Tb
hot object
Tb,1
FLOW IN CONDUITS
Tw,1
Tw,2
qs hln
T T T
DL
ln T T T
w,1
w,1
b ,1
b ,1
Tb ,2
w,2 Tb ,2
w,2
Definition is based on
information at one point. In
general, h1 is different from h2
Definition is based on the
average of the driving force
h h z
WARNING ABOUT THE USE OF HTC
To use the heat transfer coefficient,
make sure that you know exactly:
1. The definition of temperature driving force
2. The definition of heat transfer area
T r , , z
qs k
dr
o o
L 2
Rd dz
rR
q h(Ts T )
Where
h is the local heat transfer coefficient
x
y
z
x
y
,
,
y
x
0
0
x
y
x
y
x-momentum equation:
u v
0
x y
u
u
0Q
x
y
2u 2u
u
u
p
u v
2 "Body forces"
2
y
x
y
x
x
2 v 2 v
v
v
p
u v
2 "Body forces"
2
x
y
y-momentum eq:
So:
p
y
Energy equation:
0
Why?
T 2T
T
T
cp u
v k
2
2
y
y
x
x
T
T
2T
u
v
2
x
y
y
T
T
y
x
0
then
p
f
(
x
)
only,
and
x
y
and y
L
L
where L is characteri stic length of the surface
u
v
and v
V
V
where V is the freestream velocity ( U )
u
and
T - Ts
T
T Ts
*
and P * p / V 2
dx
energy
*
*
*
2 *
u
u * * v* * *
VL y * 2
x
y
x
*
T *
2T *
* T
u
v
*
*
VL y * 2
x
y
*
Wall:
With boundary
conditions
u * v *
* 0
*
x
y
u * ( x* , y* 0) 0 ; v* ( x* , y* 0) 0 ;
T * ( x* , y * 0) 0
U
V
T * ( x * , y * ) 1
Freestream: u * ( x* , y* )
[ 1 if V U ]
Re L
VL
Prandtl #
Continuity
x-momentum
energy
*
*
*
2 *
P
1
u
u * * v* * *
Re L y * 2
x
y
x
*
T *
1
2T *
* T
u
v
*
*
Re L Pr y * 2
x
y
*
Pr
u f
*
dP*
dP*
x , y , Re L , * where : * 0 for flat plate
dx
dx
dP*
* *
x , y , Re L , Pr, *
dx
*
T f
*
q&x
hx
Ts T
k f
T
y
y 0
Ts T
Ts T
k f T
hx
L y *
k f
Nu
T Ts
T
s
y
L
T T
s
L
y 0
y* 0
T *
y *
y* 0
dP*
f x * , Re L , Pr, *
dx
Nu
hL
f x * , Re L , Pr
kf
Local
Nu
hL
f Re L , Pr
kf
Average
s
2 u *
Cf
2
V
Re L y *
y 0
dP
*
f x , Re L , *
dx
*
T *
1
2T *
* T
u
v
*
*
Re L Pr y * 2
x
y
*
u *
P *
1 2u *
* u
u
v
*
*
*
Re L y * 2
x
y
x
If
dp * / dx 0
and Pr 1 , we obtain:
*
u *
1 2u *
* u
u
v
*
*
x
y
Re L y * 2
*
T *
1 2T *
* T
u
v
*
*
x
y
Re L y *2
dp * / dx 0 , u V
Wall :
The boundary conditions for these two
equations are:
u * ( x * , y * 0) 0 ;
T * ( x* , y * 0) 0
U ( x* )
Freestream : u ( x , y )
1;
V
T * ( x* , y * ) 1
*
f x , y , Re , Pr
u * f x* , y * , Re L
T*
As we know,
T *
Nu
y *
s
Cf
We conclude that
Cf
V2
f x* , Re L , Pr
y* 0
2 u *
Re L y *
Re L
Nu
2
y 0
f x* , Re L
Re L
Cf
2
h
Nu
Vc p Re Pr
Reynolds analogy
St
cf
2
S t Pr 2/3 j
(0.6 Pr 60)
Colburn j factor
For laminar flow, its only appropriate when
dp * / dx 0
Nu C Re
Pr
(Gr)
L D
Gr g Tw T x 3 2
Nu C Re
Pr
L D
b w
L V 2
P f
D 2
0.186
0.186
f 0.2
0.2
Re
VD
Ac L
2.8
0.8 0.2
W C
V
D
Geometry of the system
Fluid properties
Operational Parameter
& p t f Ac V c p t f
q mc
4 Ac
q hAtm hPLtm h
L tm
De
L
W
C 1.2
q
De
V 1.8
0.2
0.2
c
f
1 V 2.8
W
C 0.2
q
D
h
t
e
m
W/q water
1
W/q Organic coolants
4 to 10
W/q liquid metals
3 to 7
W/q gases
100
0.8
0.2
hx
Nu
k
Characteristic dimension
Length for external flow
Dia for internal flow
Can be any other dimension
kA
hx
Nu
k
1
hA
qsolid
qliquid
dT
k fluid
dx 1
h Tw Tb
Temperature gradient at the wall
dT
1
dx
hx
k fluid
1
h Tw Tb Tw Tb
x
x
dT
k fluid
dx
Pr
cp
Pr
cp
External Flow
Examples
1. Flow over flat surfaces
2. Flow over/across
cylinder/tube banks etc.
3. Surfaces may be smooth
or rough
Internal Flow
Examples
1. Flow through conduits
circular / non-circular
2. Surfaces may be smooth or
rough
T
T T
u
x
r r r r
u( r )
r
2 1
um
ro
where =0 and
For constant heat flux, the solution of the differential equation is:
11 q"s
Tm ( x ) Ts ( x )
48 k
q"s const
qs" h(TS Tm )
Combining with Newtons law of cooling:
48
k / D
h
11
Nu D
hD
4.36
k
NuD 3.66
qs" const
Ts const
0.0668 ( D / L) Re D Pr
Nu D 3.66
1 0.04[( D / L) Re D Pr] 2 / 3
Combined Entry Length case
Re D Pr
Nu D 1.86
L/D
1/ 3
0.14
Ts const
0.48 Pr 16 ,700
0.0044
9.75
s
Tm
Tm ,i Tm ,o
2
Basic functional
form
Nu C Re
Pr L D
b
Nu 0.323 Re
Nu 0.023 Re
0.8
Pr
Pr
0.6 Pr 100
n=0.4 for heating (Ts>Tb)
and 0.3 for cooling (Ts<Tb)
Nu D 0.023 Re0D.8 Pr n
0.6 Pr 100
Nu D 0.027 Re Pr
0.8
D
1/ 3
0.7 Pr 16,700
Re D 10,000
0.14
L / D 10
0.055
for
L
10 400
d
Nu D 0.027 Re Pr
0.8
D
1/ 3
0.7 Pr 16,700
0.14
Re D 10,000
L / D 10
Nu D 0.027 Re Pr
s
0.8
D
1/ 3
0.14
D
1
L
10 L / D 60
( f / 8) Re D Pr
NuD
1.07 12 .7( f / 8)1 / 2 (Pr 2 / 3 1)
0.5 Pr 200
for 6% accuracy
104 Re D 5 106
200 Pr 2000
0 b w 40
Where friction factor is for smooth tubes not rough tubes and can be
calculated using Moodys Chart OR correlation proposed by Petukhov
( f / 8)(Re D 1000 ) Pr
1 12 .7( f / 8)1 / 2 (Pr 2 / 3 1)
0.5 Pr 2000
3000 Re D 5 10 6
f
St b Pr =
8
2
Nu
where St b =Stanton number =
Re Pr
Nu
( f / 8) Re Pr
1
hrough can be several times greater than hsmooth but would also increase pressure drop
Hence a compromise between h and pressure drop is made by designers
Nu 0.0214 Re Pr
0.8
1/ 3
2.3
1
L
/
D
e
Flow sub
channel
D
Nu D C Re0D.8 Pr1/ 3
C is a constant depends on
lattice arrangements
C 0.042
S
0.024
D
C 0.026
S
1.3
D
S
0.006
D
S
1.5
D
NuD Pr 0.36 Pr
Prw f Re D
n
with n
for gases
for liquids
1
4
100 Re 103
alligned rows
f Re D 0.52 Re D
0. 5
0.5
103 Re 2 105
alligned rows
f Re D 0.27 Re D
0.63
, ST S L 0.7
staggered rows
f Re D 0.35 ST S L
f Re D 0.40 Re D
0.6
0.2
Re D
0.6
, ST S L 2
, ST S L 2
f Re D 0.033 Re D
0.8
0.2
Re D
0.8
0.2
, Pr 0.7
Re D
0.8
, Pr 1
NATURAL CONVECTION
NATURAL CONVECTION
NATURAL CONVECTION
NATURAL CONVECTION
NATURAL CONVECTION
x-momentum equation in the still fluid outside the boundary layer can
be obtained from x-momentum eq. a special case by setting u = 0
Note that v << u in the boundary layer and thus v/x v/y 0,
and that there are no body forces (including gravity) in the ydirection, the force balance in that direction gives P/y = 0.
For a given x the pressure in the boundary layer is equal to the
pressure in the still fluid. Therefore, P = P(x) = P(x) and P/x =
P/x = -g
NATURAL CONVECTION
NATURAL CONVECTION
NATURAL CONVECTION
NATURAL CONVECTION
NATURAL CONVECTION
POOL BOILING
NON FLOW
FILM BOILING
there is a formation of a continuous
film of vapor that blankets the
heating surface
SUBCOOLED BOILING
An important
point
ADIABATIC
WITHOUT BOILING
2.
3.
gs fs fg cos
Depends on
If > 90, facilitates
bubble grows / larger bubbles
If < 90,
More superheat required
< 90,
Smaller Bubbles
< 90
Bubble more easily
D2
pg p f D fg
4
But pg > pf to overcome
the surface tension force
Since pg corresponds to at least
Tsat,
pg p f
4 fg
D
4 fg
D
2 fg
pg = vapor pressure of
liquid inside bubble
rc
h fg
dp
dT sat Tsat vg v f
dpg
dTg
dpg
pg
h fg
RTg2
h fg
Tg vg
dTg
1
1
T
T
g
sat
Combine to get
Tg Tsat
RTg Tsat
h fg
ln
2 fg
1
p f rc
Tg Tsat
h fg
pg
ln
pl
4 fg
2 fg
RTgTsat
pg p f
Tg Tsat
rc
2 fg Tsat
h fg g rc
sat
pg pvap p f
4 fg
D
2 fg
rc
Bubble Detachment
Process
Nucleate Boiling
Transition Boiling
Film Boiling
BOILING REGIMES
BOILING HEAT TRANSFER - History
1. Nukiyama (1934)
Performed an experiment using an electrically heated platinum
wire
immersed in water BOILING CURVE
2. Gaertner (1965)
Vapour structures in nucleate boiling
HOW DO YOU THINK BOILING PHENOMENA GOES AS
TEMPEATURE OF THE HEATING SURFACE CHANGES
Free Convection
Te 5oC
Little vapor formation.
Liquid motion is due principally to single-phase natural convection.
Onset of Nucleate Boiling ONB Te 5oC
max
Film Boiling
Heat transfer is by conduction and radiation across the vapor blanket
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
m 1
q
Csg
f h fg
g c fg
0.33
g f g
qw
qw
h
Tw Tsat T
h L 1
Nu
Re1n Pr m
kf
Csg
Where, Csg
1. Dimensionless constant determined
experimentally for various surfaces and fluids
2. 0.0133 (water stainless steel system)
3. Depends on surface wettability
4. Determined by noting q" and T in a single
experiment
Prs exponent varies from 0.8 to 2 due to the
presence of contaminants
g f g
2. Usually done by contacting vapor with solid surface whose Tsur < Tsat
Condensation can also occur on the free surface of a liquid or even in
a gas when the Tliq ot Tgas < Tsat
3. For the case of gas, liquid droplets suspended in the gas form a fog
4. Two distinct forms of condensation are observed
Film condensation:
1. Condensate wets the surface & forms a liquid film on the surface
that slides down under the influence of gravity
2. The thickness of the liquid film increases in the flow direction as
more vapor condenses on the film
3. liquid wall between solid surface and the vapor serves as a
resistance to heat transfer
4. Heat of vaporization hfg released as vapor condenses must pass
through this resistance before it can reach the solid surface and be
transferred to the medium on the other side
The increase in heat transfer due to the wave effect is, on average,
about 20 percent, but it can exceed 50 percent.
The exact amount of enhancement depends on the Reynolds number.
Based on his experimental studies, Kutateladze (1963) recommended
For laminar film condensation on the upper surfaces of plates that are
inclined by an angle from the vertical, by replacing g in that equation
by g cos in the earlier modified Nusselt equation
Vertical Tubes
Equation for vertical plates can also be used to
calculate the average heat transfer coefficient
for laminar film condensation on the outer
surfaces of vertical tubes provided that the tube
diameter is large relative to the thickness of the
liquid film
Heat Exchangers
1. Heat transfer, study of the rates at which heat is exchanged
between heat sources and receivers
2. Process heat transfer deals with the rates of heat exchange as
they occur in the heat-transfer equipment
IMPORTANT VARIABLES IN PHT
3. The temperature difference between the source and receiver
4. The quantities of heats to be transferred
5. The rates at which they may be transferred considering
1. The natures of the bodies (Working fluids)
2. The driving potential (T)
3. The extent and arrangement of the surface separating the source
and receiver (Surface areas and their shapes)
4. The amount of mechanical energy which may be expended to
facilitate the transfer (P)
5. In PHT, heat lost by one body = the heat absorbed by another
within the confines of the system
Heat Exchangers
NATURE OF CONSTRUCTION
Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchangers
Shell and tube Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchangers
Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchangers
Spiral Type Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchangers
Compact Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchangers
Nature of Operation
Cooler
Heater
Chiller
t1
Cold Fluid
qc
t2
T1
Hot Fluid
qh
T2
Counter-Current Flow
t1
T2
Cold Fluid
qc
t2
Hot Fluid
qh
T1
T1
T1
T2
Cold Fluid
t2
Temperature
Temperature
Hot Fluid
t2
Hot Fluid
Cold Fluid
T2
t1
t1
Distance Along the Flow Path
1
1 Lm 1
R
U
hi km ho
Q UAt
qh qc mhC ph Th mc C pc Tc
Very
hio hi Ai A
1.
by
comparison with the sum of the resistances of both film
coefficients, and it usually is, it may be neglected
1 1 1
U hi ho
2. If one film coefficient is small & the other very large, the
small coefficient provides the major resistance & the
overall coefficient of heat transfer for the apparatus is
very nearly the reciprocal of the major resistance
is
the
1.
dQ U (T t )adL
dQ WCdT wcdt
Gives
t2 t1
t LMTD
ln t2 t1
(T1 t1 ) (T2 t2 )
t LMTD
ln (T1 t1 ) (T2 t2 )
For Counter Current Flow
LMTD
(T1 t2 ) (T2 t1 )
t LMTD
ln (T1 t2 ) (T2 t1 )
4 Flow _ Area
De 4 rH
4
Wetted _ Perimeter
4 D22 D12
D1
D22 D12
D1
De 4 rH
4 Flow _ Area
4
Wetted _ Perimeter
4 D22 D12
( D2 D1 )
D2 D1
Fouling Factors
1. When U has been obtained from
values of hio & ho and Q & t are
calculated
from
the
process
conditions
2. Surface area A required for the
process can be calculated
3. This Calculation of A is known as
design and the U is called Uc clean
overall heat transfer coefficient
4. Dirt & scale deposit on the inside
and outside of the pipe, adding two
more resistances
Fouling Factors
1. The addition of resistances reduce the original value
of U, and the required amount of heat is no longer
transferred by the original surface A
2. T2 rises and t2 falls below the desired outlet
temperature, although hi and ho remains constant
3. To overcome this, the deposition of dirt & scale is
anticipated by introducing a resistance Rd called dirt,
scale or fouling factor
Fouling Factors
1. The value of U obtained only form h i & ho may be considered as
the clean overall coefficient Uc
2. The coefficient which includes the dirt resistance is called design
or dirty overall coefficient UD
3. The value of A corresponding to UD rather than UC provides the
basis on which equipment is ultimately built
1
1
1
R fi R fo
Rf
U D UC
UC
121
Shell &
Tube Heat
Exchanger
Baffles Segmental
Baffles
25 % cut baffles
Baffles Segmental
Baffles
Baffles Segmental
Baffles
25 % cut baffles
Baffles Segmental
Baffles
25 % cut baffles
Baffles Segmental
Baffles
50 % cut baffles
Orifice Baffles
Orifice Baffles
Baffles
.. Higher heat transfer coefficients result when a liquid is
maintained in a state of turbulence
.. To introduce turbulence outside the tubes it is customary to
employ baffles which cause the liquid to flow through the shell
at right angles to the axis of the tubes
.. The centre to centre distance between baffles is called the baffle
pitch or baffle spacing
.. Mass velocity is not entirely dependent upon the diameter of the
shell
.. The baffle spacing is usually not greater than a distance equal to
the inside diameter of the shell or closer than a distance equal to
one-fifth the inside diameter of the shell
.. The baffles are held securely by means of baffle spacers
.. Segmental baffles are most common
.. In fig. on previous slide known as 25 % cut baffles
.. Provides up and down or side to side flow
Tube Pitch
Tube Pitch
Tube Pitch
138
Tube Pitch
Tube Pitch
.. Tube holes cannot be drilled very close together, since
too small a width of metal between adjacent tubes
structurally weakens the tube sheet
.. The shortest distance between two adjacent tube holes is
the clearance
.. Tubes are laid out on either square or triangular
patterns
.. The advantage of square pitch is that the tubes are
accessible for external cleaning and cause a lower
pressure drop when fluid flows in the direction indicated
.. The tube pitch PT is the shortest center-to-center
distance between adjacent tubes
4 Flow Area
Wetted Perimeter
Clearance = C
2
4 P d o
4
De 4 rH
do
Pitch = P
1 2
1
P 0.86 P
d o
24
2
1
do
2
Pitch = P
Clearance = C
1. Shell
2. Tube Sheets
3. Channels
4. Channel Cover
5. Transverse
Baffles
6. Baffle Spacers
Number of Passes
Number of Passes
Number of Passes
OR
. The hot-fluid outlet and cold fluid Inlet, T2 - t1
1. Where
FT
R 2 1 ln (1 S ) (1 RS )
R 1 ln
2 S ( R 1 R 2 1)
2 S ( R 1 R 2 1)
&c p
T1 T2 m
tube side
R
,
&c p
t2 t1 m
shell side
t2 t1
P
T1 t1