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Content Analysis
Multiple Definitions
Background
Applications and Procedure
An Illustration
Consistency within Diversity
Growth
Reliability
Validity
General Definitions
...a research technique that uses a set of procedures
to make valid inferences from text (Weber, 1990, p. 9)
Definitions (continued)
Essential Purpose
Who (says) What (to) Whom (in) what Channel (with) What
Effect? (Lasswell, 1948)
A text
To obtain documentary evidence about:
A sender
A message
A receiver (audience)
Procedures
Communication transmission model (manifest
content)
Semiotic model (latent content) of the signifier and
the signified
Historical Antecedents
Analysis of Texts
Researchers have analyzed texts since the start of
writing
Content analysis draws on Aristotelian principles of
textual analysis as described in Poetics
Subject of text
Creator
Audience
Purpose
Context
Ethos
Pathos
Analysis of Texts
Medieval Scholastics recognized latent meanings of words,
leading to categories
First documented content analysis:
18th century Sweden
Collection of religious hymns blamed for subverting orthodox state
church and inciting dissent
Words and symbols in songs were same as orthodox hymnal, but
occurred in different contexts (Dovring, 1951; Krippendorf, 2009)
Analysis of Texts
During early 20th century Weber studied content of newspapers
raising fundamental questions:
How do newspapers affect readers?
How do the contents of newspapers compare quantitatively over a
generation?
Psychological Analysis
Gordon Allport
Pioneer in personality theory
Analyzed Letters to Jenny (Diary)
Aimed to understand her experienced world by identifying
psychological traits as expressed in her letters and diaries
(Krippendorf & Bock, 2009)
Content Analysis
Topics
A Quantitative Illustration
Research Problem:
What role does popular magazine fiction play in
affecting attitudes toward ethnic minorities?
(Berelson and Salter, 1946)
Hypotheses Asserted
Sympathetic characters are from the majority
Unsympathetic characters are from minorities and usually
unsympathetic and secondary
Social interaction between majority and minority groups
seldom occurs.
When interaction occurs, minority group in a subordinate position.
After examining the stories other categories and indicators were noted. These
emergent categories extended the hypothesis (a posteriori)
Berelson
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Do indicators support
hypothesis?
Two Methods
Qualitative and Quantitative Procedures
Quantitative Procedures
Content analysis starts with the hypothesis
Categories derived from possibilities of hypothesis
Categories established a priori and indicators based on
manifest (surface) meaning
Qualitative Procedures
Qualitative approach derives categories after examining
document emergent coding
Factors in latent meanings of words or messages
Context and proximity suggest the intended
meaning of a message
System
Systematic procedures facilitate objective, unbiased
selection of content and categories (Holsti, 1969)
Assigning firm rules to regulate inclusion & exclusion
of content and categories prevents researcher from
biased, self-serving selection
Rules preclude an analyst from intentional or
unintentional bias in selecting only content or category
supporting hypothesis, proposition, or self-interest.
Generality
Select content based on clear definitions for determining
content and categories fosters objectivity
Establish procedures for inclusion or exclusion of data -contributes towards consistency and systematic, impartial
selection
Promote principled, legitimate descriptive analysis with
systematic procedures provides a basis for generalizing
about the data collection
Thorny Issues
Quality & Quantity ~
Manifest Content and Latent Content
Arguments Refined
Holsti (1969) holds that other measures besides quantitative frequency counts &
enumeration valid
The use of quantitative procedures or qualitative is not an either/or issue -- they can
interact
Considerations:
Must content analysis be restricted to manifest content or
surface meanings; elements physically present &
countable (Neuendorf, 2002 p. 23)
Holsti offers compelling example of limits of manifest
content.
Limit to manifest content would not yield this notion
Describes patient in mental hospital who states he is in
Switzerland. In this case, the patients meaning of Switzerland is
freedom. By stating he is in Switzerland, he is stating that he
wants freedom.
Latent content & meaning would provide the context whereby the
receiver of the message would understand the idiosyncratic
meaning.
Latent content need not be dismissed. However, as Holsti
emphasizes, it should be verified by independent evidence.
A Growing Trend
During early 20th century Max Weber applied techniques of content
analysis to journalism when he introduced the notion of studying
the sociology of the press (Weber, 1924)
Reliability
Reliability measured basically in two ways (Stemler, 2001)
Stability (intra-rater reliability Does same coder get same results
again and again?
Reproducibility (inter-rater reliability) Do different coders, rating
the same text, get the same results?
Internal Validity
Internal validity is degree a procedure of measurement represents
the defined concept
Does the procedure measure what one intends to measure?
Research question determines what one intends to measure
In previous example, the concern was how individuals in majority
population and minority population were characterized in fictional stories
carried by popular magazines
External Validity
External validity or the ability to generalize to the wider
population, depends largely on the soundness of ones
sampling technique and sample
Need experimental controls or validity becomes serious
concern
Triangulation or independent corroboration is one means of
establishing validity
Another involves conducting same inquiry using another method of
inquiry formal experimental design employing surveys or
qualitative procedure with focus group/interviews
Flowchart: Qualitative
Bibliography
Allport. G. (1965). Letters from Jenny. In K. Krippendorff & M. Bock (Eds.), The content
analysis reader (p. 28-37). London: Sage. Print.
Holsti, O. R. (1969). Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities.
Reading, MA: Addision-Wesley Pub. Co. Retrieved from http://
www.questia.com
Krippendorf, K. (2003). Introduction to Content Analysis. CA: Sage. Print
Krippendorff, K. & Bock, M. A. (2009). The Content Analysis Reader. CA:
Sage. Print.
Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. London: Sage.
Online resource: http://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/content
Reitz, J. M. (2004). Dictionary for library and information science. CN: Libraries Unlimited.
(Print).
Riffe, D. & Freitag, A. (1997). A content analysis of content analyses: Twenty-five years of
Journalism Quarterly. J&MC, 74, 4, 873-882.
Bibliography (continued)
Stemler, S. (2001). An overview of content analysis. Practical Assessment,
Research and Evaluation, 7 (17). Retrieved from http://PAREonline.net
Weber, M. (1924). Toward a sociology of the press: An early proposal for
content analysis. In K. Krippendorff & M. Bock (Eds.), The content analysis
reader (p. 9-11). London: Sage. Print.
Weber, R. (1990). Basic Content Analysis. London: Sage. Print.