Electrical Potential Energy

In Chapter 15, we saw that the gravitational and

electrical (Coulomb) forces have similar forms
Fg G

m1m2
r2

Gravity

Fe k e

q1 q2
r2

Electrical

This similarity also leads to a similarity between the

potential energies associated with each force
U g G

m1m2
r

q1q2
U e ke
r

(can be obtained directly

through calculus)

Gravity
Electrical
Ue depends on magnitude and sign of a pair of charges
Ue is positive (negative) when q1 and q2 have the same
(opposite) sign
Remember: potential energy is a scalar quantity

Electrical Potential Energy

Comparison of Ug and Ue as a function of separation
U
U
U
distance:
r
r
r
g

q1q2 < 0

If 2 charges have opposite (same) signs, the

potential energy of the pair increases
(decreases) with separation distance
Charges always move from high to
low potential energy
Positive (negative) charges move
in the same (opposite) direction
as the electric field

q1q2 > 0

CQ 1: A positively charged particle starts at rest 25 cm

from a second positively charged particle which is
held stationary throughout the experiment. The first
particle is released and accelerates directly away from
the second particle. When the first particle has moved
25 cm, it has reached a velocity of 10 m/s. What is
the maximum velocity that the first particle will reach?
A)
B)
C)
D)

10 m/s
14 m/s
20 m/s
Since the first particle will never escape the
electric field of the second particle, it will never
stop accelerating, and will reach an infinite
velocity.

Electric Potential
Electric potential is defined as the electric
potential energy per unit charge

Ue
V
q

Scalar quantity with units of volts (1 V = 1 J/C)

Sometimes called simply potential or voltage
Electric potential is characteristic of the field only,
independent of a test charge placed in that field
Potential energy is a characteristic of a charge-field
system due to an interaction between the field and a
charge placed in the field

When a positive (negative)

charge is placed in an electric
field, it moves from a point of high
(low) potential to point of lower
(higher) potential

Higher potential

Lower potential

Electric Potential
When a point charge q moves between 2 points A
and B, it moves through a potential difference:
V V f Vi VB VA

The potential difference is the change in electric

potential energy per unit charge: U e qV
The electric force on any charge (+ or ) is always
directed toward regions of lower electric potential
energy (just like gravity)
For a positive (negative) charge, lower potential
energy means lower (higher) potential
Helpful detail: E points in the direction of decreasing V

Electric potential created by a point charge:

Depends only on q and r

Potential vs. Potential Energy

V ke

q
r

Example Problem #16.17

The three charges shown in the
figure are at the vertices of an
isosceles triangle. Let q = 7.00 nC,
and calculate the electric potential at
the midpoint of the base.

3.87 cm

Solution (details given in class):

11.0 kV

Potential Differences in Biological Systems

Axons (long extensions) of nerve cells (neurons)
In resting state, fluid inside has a potential that is 85 mV
relative to the fluid outside (due to differences in +/ ion
concentrations)
A nerve impulse causes the outer membrane to become
permeable to + Na ions for about 0.2 ms
This changes polarity of inside fluid to +
Potential difference across cell membrane changes from
about 85 mV to +60 mV
Restoration of resting potential involves the diffusion of K
and pumping of Na ions out of cell (active transport)
As much as 20% of the resting energy requirements of the
body are used for active transport of Na ions

Potential Differences in Medicine

Polarity changes across membranes of muscle cells
Muscle cells have a layer of ions on the inside of the
membrane and + ions on the outside
Just before each heartbeat, + ions are pumped into the
cells, neutralizing the potential difference (depolarization)
Cells become polarized again when the heart relaxes

Electrocardiogram (EKG)
Measures potential difference between points on chest as
a function of time
Polarization and depolarization of cells in heart causes
potential differences that are measured by electrodes

Electroencephalogram (EEG) and Electroretinogram

(ERG)
Measures potential differences caused by electrical activity
in the brain (EEG) and retina (ERG)

Potentials and Charged Conductors

We know that: U = W (from last semester) and U
= qV
Combining these two equations: W qV qVB VA
No work is required to move a charge between two points
at the same electric potential

For a charged conductor in equilibrium:

No work is done by E if charge is moved
between points A and B
Since W = 0, VB VA = 0 at surface
Since E = 0 inside a conductor, no work is
required to move a charge inside conductor
(thus V = 0 inside as well)
Conclusion: Electric potential is constant everywhere
inside a conductor and is equal to its (constant) value at
the surface

CQ 2: Two charged metal plates are placed one meter

apart creating a constant electric field between them.
A one Coulomb charged particle is placed in the
space between them. The particle experiences a
force of 100 Newtons due to the electric field. What is
the potential difference between the plates?
A)
B)
C)
D)

1V
10 V
100 V
1000 V

CQ 3: How much work is required to move a

positively charged particle along the 15 cm
path shown, if the electric field E is 10 N/C and
the charge on the particle is 8 C? (Note: ignore
gravity)

A)
B)
C)
D)

0.8 J
8J
12 J
1200 J

Equipotential Surfaces
An equipotential surface has the same potential at
every point on the surface
Similar to topographic map, which
shows lines of constant elevation

Since V = 0 for each surface, W = 0

along the surface
Thus electric field lines are perpendicular to the
equipotential surfaces at all points

E points in the direction of the maximum decrease

in V (E points from high to low potential)
Similar to a topographic contour map (slope is steepest
perpendicular to lines of constant elevation)
Electric field is thus sometimes called the potential
gradient (meaning grade or slope)

Equipotential Surfaces
On a contour map a hill is steepest where the lines
of constant elevation are close together
If equipotential surfaces are drawn such that the
potential difference between adjacent surfaces is
constant, then the surfaces are closer together
where the field is stronger

Examples of Equipotential Surfaces

CQ 4: Interactive Example Problem:

Drawing Equipotential Lines
Which equipotential plot best represents the
electric field pattern shown?
A)
B)
C)
D)

Plot 1
Plot 2
Plot 3
Plot 4

(PHYSLET Physics Exploration 25.1, copyright Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004)

Capacitance
A capacitor is a device that stores electrical potential
energy by storing separated + and charges
2 conductors separated by vacuum, air, or insulation
+ charge put on one conductor, equal amount of charge
put on the other conductor
A battery or power supply typically supplies
the work necessary to separate the charge

Simplest form of capacitor is the

Charging A Capacitor
parallel plate capacitor
2 parallel plates, each with same area A,
separated by distance d
Charge +Q on one plate, Q on the other
If plates are close together, electric field will be
uniform (constant) between the plates

Capacitance
For a uniform electric field, the potential difference
between the plates is (see Example Problem #16.6)
V = Ed
E is proportional to the charge, and V is proportional to E
therefore the charge is proportional to V

The constant of proportionality between charge and

V is called capacitance
Q
C

Units: C / V = Farad (F)

Capacity to hold charge for a given V

1 F is very large unit: typical values of C are F, nF, or pF

Capacitance depends on the geometry of the plates

and the material between the plates
C 0

A
(for plates separated by air)
d

Capacitors in Circuits and Applications

Capacitors are used in a variety of electronic circuits
Example of circuit diagram consisting of
capacitors and a battery shown at right

Many practical uses of capacitors

Some computer keyboard keys have
capacitors with a variable plate spacing below them
Microphones using capacitors with one moving plate to
create an electrical signal
Constant potential difference kept between plates by a battery
As plate spacing changes, charge flows onto and off of plates
The moving charge (current) is amplified to generate signal

Tweeters (speakers for high-frequency sounds) are

microphones in reverse
Millions of microscopic capacitors used in each RAM
computer memory chip
Charged and discharged capacitors correspond to 1 and 0 states

CQ 5: Interactive Example Problem:

Fun With Capacitors
If a constant electric potential is maintained
between the plates of the capacitor, what
happens to the charge on the capacitor?
A)
B)
C)
D)

The charge gets smaller.

The charge gets larger.
The charge stays the same.
The capacitor discharges.

(PHYSLET Physics Exploration 26.2, copyright Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004)

Combinations of Capacitors
Capacitors can be combined in circuits to give a
particular net capacitance for the entire circuit
Parallel Combination
Potential difference across each
capacitor is the same and equal to
V of the battery
Qtot = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 +
Total (equivalent) capacitance:
Ceq C1 C2 C3

Series Combination
Magnitude of charge is the same on
all plates
V (battery) = V1 + V2 + V3 +
Total (equivalent) 1 1 1 1
capacitance:
Ceq C1 C2 C3

Example Problem
Capacitors C1 = 4.0 F and C2 = 2.0 F are charged as
a series combination across a 100V battery. The
two capacitors are disconnected from the battery and
from each other. They are then connected positive
plate to positive plate and negative plate to negative
plate. Calculate the resulting charge on each
capacitor.

Solution (details given in class):

1.8 102 C (4.0 F capacitor)
89 C (2.0 F capacitor)

Example Problem #16.35

Find (a) the equivalent capacitance of the capacitors in the

circuit shown, (b) the charge on each capacitor, and (c) the
potential difference across each capacitor.
Solution (details given in class):
(a) 2.67 F
(b) 24.0 C (each 8.00-F capacitor), 18.0 C (6.00-F
capacitor), 6.00 C (2.00-F capacitor)
(c) 3.00 V (each capacitor)

Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor

Its easy to tell that a capacitor stores (releases)
energy when it charges (discharges)
The energy stored by the capacitor = work required
to charge the capacitor (typically performed by a
battery or power supply)
As more and more charge is transferred
between the plates, the charge, voltage,
and work done by battery increases
(W = VQ)
Total work done = total energy stored:
1
1
Q2
2
E QV C V
2
2
2C

Defibrillators typically release about 1.2 kJ of stored

energy from capacitor with V 5 kV

Capacitors with Dielectrics

A dielectric is an insulating material
Rubber, plastic, glass, nylon

When a dielectric is inserted between the conductors

of a capacitor, the capacitance increases
Capacitance increases for a parallel-plate capacitor in
which a dielectric fills the entire space between the
plates
A
= dielectric constant (ratio of capacitance
with dielectric to capacitance without dielectric)

C 0

For any given plate separation d, there is a maximum

electric field (dielectric strength) that can be produced
in the dielectric before it breaks down and conducts
See Table 16.1 for values of and dielectric strength for
various materials

Capacitors with Dielectrics

The molecules of the dielectric, when placed in the
electric field of a capacitor, become polarized
Centers of positive and negative charges become
preferentially oriented in the field (see figure below at left)
Creates a net positive (negative) charge on the left (right)
side of the dielectric (see figure below at right)
This helps attract more charge to the conducting plates for
a given V
Since plates can store more charge for a given voltage,
the capacitance must increase (remember C = Q / V )

Capacitors with Dielectrics

To increase capacitance while keeping the physical
size reasonable, plates are often made of a thin
conducting foil that is rolled into a cylinder
Dielectric material is sandwiched in between

High-voltage capacitor commonly consists of

interwoven metal plates immersed in silicone oil
Very large capacitances can be achieved with an
electrolytic capacitor at relatively low voltages
Insulating metal oxide
layer forms on the
conducting foil and
serves as a (very thin)
dielectric