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The d block:

The d
series

block consists of three horizontal


in periods 4, 5 & 6

10 elements in each series


Chemistry is different from other
elements
Special electronic configurations important
Differences within a group in the d block are
less sharp than in s & p block
Similarities across a period are greater

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Electronic Configuration
Across the 1st row of the d block
(Sc to Zn) each element

has 1 more electron and 1 more proton


Each additional electron enters the
3d sub-shell
The core configuration for all the
period 4 transition elements is that of
Ar
1s22s22p63s23p6

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Energy

4p
3d

4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s

Ar
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Energy

4p
3d

4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s

Sc
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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Electronic Arrangement

Element Z

3d

4s

Sc

21

[Ar]

Ti

22

[Ar]

23

[Ar]

Cr

24

[Ar]

Mn

25

[Ar]

Fe

26

[Ar]

Co

27

[Ar]

Ni

28

[Ar]

Cu

29

[Ar]

Zn

30

[Ar]

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Chromium and Copper


Cr and Cu dont fit the pattern of
building up the 3d sub-shell, why?
In the ground state electrons are always
arranged to give lowest total energy
Electrons are negatively charged and repel
each other
Lower total energy is obtained with e- singly
in orbitals rather than if they are paired in
an orbital
Energies of 3d and 4s orbitals very close
together in Period 4
SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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Chromium and Copper


At Cr

Orbital energies such that putting one


e- into each 3d and 4s orbital gives
lower energy than having 2 e- in the
4s orbital

At Cu

Putting 2 e- into the 4s orbital would


give a higher energy than filling the
3d orbitals
SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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Energy

4p
3d

4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s

Cr
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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Energy

4p
3d

4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s

Cu
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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What is a transition metal?


Transition metals [TMs] have
characteristic properties
e.g. coloured compounds, variable oxidation
states

These are due to presence of an inner


incomplete d sub-shell
Electrons from both inner d sub-shell
and outer s sub-shell can be involved in
compound formation
SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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What is a transition metal?


Not all d block elements have
incomplete d sub-shells
e.g. Zn has e.c. of [Ar]3d104s2, the
Zn2+ ion ([Ar] 3d10) is not a typical TM
ion
Similarly Sc forms Sc3+ which has the
stable e.c of Ar. Sc3+ has no 3d
electrons
SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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What is a transition metal?


For this reason, a transition metal
is defined as being an element
which forms at least one ion with a
partially filled sub-shell of d
electrons.

In period 4 only Ti-Cu are TMs!


Note that when d block elements form
ions the s electrons are lost first
SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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What are TMs like?


TMs are metals
They are similar to each other but
different from s block metals eg Na and
Mg
Properties of TMs

Dense metals
Have high Tm and Tb
Tend to be hard and durable
Have high tensile strength
Have good mechanical properties

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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What are TMs like?


Properties derive from strong metallic
bonding
TMs can release e- into the pool of mobile
electrons from both outer and inner shells
Strong metallic bonds formed between the
mobile pool and the +ve metal ions
Enables widespread use of TMs!
Alloys very important: inhibits slip in crystal
lattice usually results in increased hardness
and reduced malleability

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Effect of Alloying on TMs

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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TM Chemical Properties

Typical chemical properties of the


TMs are
Formation of compounds in a variety of
oxidation states
Catalytic activity of the elements and
their compounds
Strong tendency to form complexes
See CI 11.6

Formation of coloured compounds


See CI 11.6

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Variable Oxidation States


TMs show a great variety of
oxidation states cf s block metals
If compare successive ionisation
enthalpies (Hi) for Ca and V as
follows
M(g)
M+(g)
M2+(g)
M3+(g)

M+(g) + eM2+(g) + eM3+(g) + eM4+(g) + e-

Hi(1)
Hi(2)
Hi(3)
Hi(4)

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Hi for Ca and V
Ionisation Enthalpies
Element

[kJ mol-1]
Hi(1) Hi(2) Hi(3) Hi(4)

Ca [Ar]4s2

+596 +1152 +4918 +6480

V [Ar]3d34s2

+656 +1420 +2834 +4513


SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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Hi for Ca and V
Both Ca & V always lose the 4s electrons
For Ca
Hi(1) & Hi(2) relatively low as corresponds
to removing outer 4s e Sharp increase in Hi(3) & Hi(4) cf Hi(2)
due to difficulty in removing 3p e-

For Sc
Gradual increase from Hi(1) to Hi(4) as
removing 4s then 3d eSS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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Oxidation States of TMs


In the following table
Most important OSs in boxes
OS = +1 only important for Cu
In all others sum of Hi(1) + Hi(2)
low enough for 2e- to be removed
OS = +2, where 4s e- lost shown by
all except for Sc and Ti
OS = +3, shown by all except Zn
SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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Oxidation States of TMs


S
c

+3

Ti

C
r

M
n

F
e

C
o

N
i

C
u

Z
n

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+3

+3

+3

+3

+3

+3

+3

+3

+4

+4

+1

+4

+5
+6

+6
+7

+6

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Oxidation States of TMs


No of OSs shown by an element
increases from Sc to Mn

In each of these elements highest OS is


equal to no. of 3d and 4s e-

After Mn decrease in no. of OSs shown


by an element
Highest OS shown becomes lower and less
stable
Seems increasing nuclear charge binds 3d emore strongly, hence harder to remove

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Oxidation States of TMs


In general

Lower OSs found in simple ionic


compounds

E.g. compounds containing Cr3+, Mn2+, Fe3+,


Cu2+ ions

TMs in higher OSs usually covalently


bound to electronegative element such
as O or F
E.g VO3-, vanadate(V) ion; MnO4-,
manganate(VII) ion
Simple ions with high OSs such as V5+ &
Mn7+ are not formed

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Stability of OSs
Change from one OS to another is a
redox reaction
Relative stability of different OSs
can be predicted by looking at
Standard Electrode Potentials
E values

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Stability of OSs
General trends
Higher OSs become less stable
relative to lower ones on moving from
left to right across the series
Compounds containing TMs in high OSs
tend to be oxidising agents e.g MnO4 Compounds with TMs in low OSs are
often reducing agents e.g V2+ & Fe2+

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Stability of OSs
General trends (continued)
Relative stability of +2 state with respect to
+3 state increases across the series
For compounds early in the series, +2 state
highly reducing
E.g. V2+(aq) & Cr2+(aq) strong reducing agents

Later in series +2 stable, +3 state highly


oxidising
E.g. Co3+ is a strong oxidising agent, Ni3+ & Cu3+ do
not exist in aqueous solution.

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Catalytic Activity
TMs and their compounds effective and
important catalysts
Industrially and biologically!!

The people in the know believe

catalysts provide reaction pathway with lower


EA than uncatalysed reaction (see CI 10.5)

Once again,

availability of 3d and 4s e ability to change OS


among factors which make TMs such good
catalysts
SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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Heterogeneous Catalysis
Catalyst in different phase from reactants
Usually means solid TM catalyst with reactants
in liquid or gas phases

TMs can

use the 3d and 4s e- of atoms on metal


surface to from weak bonds to the reactants.
Once reaction has occurred on TM surface,
these bonds can break to release products

Important example is hydrogenation of


alkenes using Ni or Pt catalyst

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Heterogeneous Catalysis

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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Homogeneous Catalysis
Catalyst in same phase as reactants
Usually means reaction takes place in
aqueous phase
Catalyst aqueous TM ion

Usually involves

TM ion forming intermediate compound


with ome or more of the reactants
Intermediate then breaks down to form
products
SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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Homogeneous Catalysis
O
HO H C
O
C
O
C
HO H C

3 HO

OH

O +
C

2 HC

+ 4 OH2

Above reaction is that used in


Activity SS5.2
2,3-dihydroxybutanoate ion with
hydrogen peroxide
Reaction catalysed by Co2+
SS CI 11.5 The d bloc
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Suggested Mechanism
REACTANTS

INTERMEDIATE

H2O2 +
-

O2CCH(OH)CH(OH)C02Co2+ (pink)
Regenerated
Catalyst

Co2+ reduces

containing

H2O2 & gets


oxidised to
Co3+

Co3+ (green)

PRODUCTS
CO2, methanoate, H2O
Co2+ (pink)

Co3+ oxidises
2,3hydroxybutanoate &
gets
reduced to
Co2+

SS CI 11.5 The d bloc


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