The Research Process

Identification and Definition of a Research Problem

Statement of
Research Problem/
Objectives

Theoretical/Conceptual
Framework
Formulation

Statement of
Research Problem/
Objectives

Hypothesis Formulation
Choosing Appropriate Research Design
Identification of Target Population & Sampling
Data Collection
Preparation of
Research Instrument

Reliability Testing
and Validation

Reliability Testing
and Validation

Reliability Testing
and Validation

Data Processing
(Editing, Coding, Encoding, Creation of Data Files Tabulation
Data Analysis and Interpretation
(Statistical Analysis, Interpretation, Generalization
Report Preparation and Information Dissemination

What is Research?

Research is defined as a careful, systematic

study in a field of knowledge, undertaken to
discover or establish facts or principles. It is also
defined as a systematic process of collecting and
analyzing data to find an answer to a question or
a solution to problem, to validate or test an
existing theory.

Importance of Nursing Research

it helps us to prove or disprove a
phenomena that is related to nursing
It helps us identify and understand
the causes and effects of a situation or
a phenomenon
It allows us to validate existing
theories or generate new ones.

Importance of Nursing Research

evidence that an intervention is the
best should exist.
intervention should be based on
research evidence before it can be
determined as the optimum one.
evidence based practice will lead to
safe and quality care rendered to
patients.

ROLES OF NURSES IN RESEARCH

Principal Investigator
Member of a Research Team
Identifier of Researchable Problems
Evaluator of Research Findings
User of Research Findings
Patient/Client Advocate during Studies
Subject in Studies

Purposes of Nursing Research

Research Classification According to
the General Purpose of the Study
o Basic research is conducted to
develop, test, and refine theories and
generate new knowledge.
o also referred to as Pure Research
o Applied Research is directed
toward generating knowledge that can
be used in the near future.
o it is often conducted to seek solutions
to existing problems

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Personal Experiences
Literature Resources
Existing Theories
Previous Research

ria for Writing a Research Problem State

tten in Interrogative Sentence Form
ludes the Population
ludes the Variables
variate study
ariate study
tivariate study

ITERIA IN EVALUATING RESEARCH PROBL

Clarity
Written in interrogative form
Variable and population inclusion
Testability
Ethical consideration
Feasibility
Significance of study

verview of Quantitative Research

teps in Quantitative Research

Identify the problem
Determine the purpose of the study
Develop a theoretical/conceptual framework
Identify the study assumptions
Acknowledge the limitation of the study
Formulate the hypothesis or research questio
Define study variables /terms
Select the research design
Identify the population

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Select the sample

Conduct a pilot study
Collect the data
Organize the data for analysis
Analyze the data
Interpret the findings
Communicate the findings
Utilize the findings

Identify the Problem

o First and the most difficult and the
most important steps
o can be identified from personal
experiences, from literature, from
previous research, or through the
testing of theories.
o the problem should be of interest to
the researcher and of importance in
nursing.
o problem of the study is best stated in
question, because question demands
answers.

Variable is a characteristic or attribute

that differs among the persons, objects,
events, and so forth, that are being
studied (e.g., age, blood type, selfesteem, quality care, etc.)
Ex. Of problem statement: Is there a
correlation between self-esteem and
academic performance.
Dependent variable The effect; a
response or behavior that is influenced
by the independent variable; sometimes
called the criterion variable.
Independent variable The cause;

Univariate study a research study in

which only one variable is examined
Ex. What is the self-esteem of
psychiatric nurses.
Bivariate study a research study in
which the relationship between two
variables is examined.
Ex. Is there a relationship between the
self-esteem and the clinical performance
of psych. Nurses.
Multivariate study a research study

Population
is a complete set of individuals or
objects that possess some common
caharacterisitc of interest to the
researcher.
Target population are also called
the universe, is made up of the group of
people or objects to which the researcher
wishes to generalize the findings of a
study.
Accessible population is that
group that is actually available for study
by the researcher.

Ex. of Target population

- Female Psychiatric nurses whose
work experience is 1 year to 10 years
- Ex. of Accessible population
- Female psychiatric nurses and their
length of experiences vary from 1 to
10 years.

Determine the purpose of the study

Difference between a purpose of the
study and problem statement
a purpose of the study furnishes
why a study is being conducted.
a problem statement establishes
what will be studied
a clear and justified purpose must the
study must be explicitly presented, this
is usually the basis for the approval of a
research project.

Example: Problem statement: Body

image and Self-esteem Levels of Women
undergone Mastectomy.
Purpose: To develop a better
understanding of the difficulties
experienced by women after a loss of a
body part that is closely associated with
their feminine identity.

DEVELOPING
CONCEPTUAL/THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Definition of Related Terms
CONCEPT is a word picture or
mental idea of a phenomenon
-are words or terms that symbolize
some aspect of reality
- it may be very concrete, such as
the concept of human heart
- it may be very abstract, such as the
concept of LOVE

CONSTRUCT is the term used to

indicate a phenomenon that cannot be
directly observed but must be inferred
by certain concrete or less abstract
indicators of the phenomenon
Examples: Wellness, Self-awareness,
Self-esteem and Emotional quotient
PROPOSITION is a statement or
assertion of the relationship between
concepts.
-derived from theories or from
generalization based on empirical data

THEORY is a set of interrelated

constructs (concepts), definitions,
and propositions that present a
systematic view of phenomena by
specifying relations among variables,
with the purpose of explaining and
predicting the phenomena
-It explain why event is associated
with another event or what causes
an event to occur
- are composed of concepts and the
relationships between these

Continuation:
-Are always speculative in nature and
are never considered to be true or
proven
MODEL is a symbolic representation
of some phenomenon or phenomena

Review the Literature

research should build on previous
knowledge.
before starting a Quantitative study, it
is important to determine what is known
in the study topic.
there are only few topics with no
existing knowledge base
literature sources can be located in
library card catalog, indexes, abstracts,
and computer-assisted searches
it also helps develop a theoretical or
conceptual framework for a study.

RPOSE OF REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATU

Research problem identification
Research framework
Methodology
Research instrument

egories of references
ocal/foreign literature
ocal/foreign studies

LOCATING RELEVANT LITERATURE

FOR RESEARCH REVIEW
Library
Primary/secondary sources
Print sources
Electronic sources

Limitations of the Study

-Identify the study limitations and
weaknesses
- are uncontrolled variables that may
affect the result of the study and limit the
generalizability of the findings.
- extraneous variables are variables
over which the researcher either has no
control or chooses not to exercise control
- researcher should openly acknowledge
the limitations of the study before data
collection.
- limitations may occur while the study is

- Must be taken into consideration when

the conclusions of the study are
formulated and recommendations are
made for future research.

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

OBJECTIVES:
1. Discuss the steps in hypothesis testing
2. Formulate and test statistical hypothesis.
- calculate the value of test statistic.
- identify the critical value(s).
3. State the conclusion of a hypothesis test in
simple non technical terms.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
- states that virtually all relationships in
data can
be examined.
STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS TESTING
- is the way of determining the probability
that an
obtained sample statistic will occur ,
given a
hypothetical population parameter.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS TESTING

- specifies that the nature of the
relationship the researcher thinks
exist in the population.
HYPOTHESIS TEST
- states your expectations concerning
the relationship between the
variables in your research problem.
- a testable statement of a potential
relationship between two or more
variables.
- statistically , it becomes the
evidence on why and how the

PURPOSE , FUNCTIONS , AND IMPORTANCE OF

HYPOTHESES
1.They help the researcher in designing his
study : what methods , research
instruments , sampling design , and
statistical treatments to use , what data to
gather , analyze , interpret on the study.
2.They serve as the basis for determining
assumptions.
3.They serve as basis in determining the
relevance of the data.
4.They serve as the basis for the explanation
or discussion about the data gathered.
5.They help the researcher in consolidating

GUIDELINES IN THE FORMULATION OF

HYPOTHESIS
1.In experimental investigations,
hypothesis have to be explicit , they
have to be expressed as well as in
comparative and correlational studies.
2.In descriptive and historical
investigation, hypothesis are seldom
express if not entirely absent.
3.Hypothesis are usually stated in the null
form because testing a null hypothesis is
easier than a hypothesis in the
operational form.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
....... is a decision-making process for evaluating ,claims about a population , based
on the information obtained from samples.

FORMULATION OF
HYPOTHESIS
1.STATEMENT OF THE
PROBLEM
Includes :
.null hypothesis
.alternative
hypothesis
.significance level of
the test

COLLECTION OF
EVIDENCE
( data )
2.SET THE LEVEL OF
SIGNIFICANCE AND
THE CRITICAL
VALUES
OF THE TEST.
Includes:
.Acceptance and
Rejection region in
the
normal curve.
(critical regions)
TABLES
.Z- value
.Degrees of freedom
.P-value

ANALYSIS OF
EVIDENCE
( data )
3.FINDING THE TEST
STATISTIC
Test statistic is the
function of sample
data on which a
conclusion to reject or
fail to reject Ho is
based.
.Check to make sure
that any assumptions
required for the test
are reasonable.
.Compute all
quantities
appearing in the test
statistic and then the
value of the test
statistic itself.
.Compare the
computed
value with the critical
or tabular value and
then decide to accept
or reject the
hypothesis.

DECISION ABOUT THE

HYPOTHESIS
4.STATE THE
CONCLUSION.
.Include the following
relevant information.
.hypothesis
.test procedure
.conclusion context.

TYPES/CLASSIFICATIONS OF HYPOTHESIS
1. Simple hypothesis states the
relationship between one independent
and one dependent variable
2. Complex hypothesis states the
relationship where two or more
independent variables, two or more
dependent variables, or both, are being
examined in the same study
Note: Hypothesis is not required in only one
variable is

3. Null Hypothesis (H) - assumes that

no relationship
exists between two variables, and it is the
null
hypothesis that is subjected to statistical
analysis.
4. Research hypothesis or Alternative
hypothesis (H) states the expected
relationship between variables
Note: Level of significance should be stated
before gathering of data, this will be the

5. Nondirectional research hypothesis it

merely predicts that a relationship exists.
6. Directional hypothesis it further
predicts the type of relationship

HYPOTHESIS CRITERIA
should be written in a declarative
sentence
should be written in present tense
it should contains the population
it should contains the variables
should reflect the problem statement
should be empirically testable

RESEARCH
DESIGNS

Exploratory studies are conducted when

little is known about the phenomenon of
interest
Descriptive studies phenomena are
described or the relationship between
variables is examined.
Explanatory studies search for causal
explanations and are much more rigorous
than exploratory or descriptive studies.
- It is usually experimental

RESEARCH DESIGNS
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
it is involve with the cause and effect
relationships.
it is also involve in the manipulation or
control of the
independent variables (cause) and
measurement of
dependent variables (effect)
controls are difficult to apply especially if
it is done
with human beings

VALIDITY OF EXPEREMENTAL DESIGNS

o CONTROL OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
that may influence study results
o CONTROL OF THREATS TO INTERNAL
VALIDITY that may influence the
dependent variables other than the
independent variables.
o CONTROL OF THREATS TO EXTERNAL
VALIDITY that may affect the degree to
which study results can be generalized to
other people and other settings.

THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY

Selection bias - it occurs when study
results are attributed to the experimental
treatment or the researchers manipulation of
the independent variable when, in fact, the
results are due to subject differences before
the independent variable was manipulated.
History occurs when some event other
than the experimental treatment occurs
during the course of a study, and this event
influences the dependent variables.

 Maturation becomes a threat when

changes that occur within the subjects during
an experimental study influence the study
results.
Testing the testing threat may occur in
studies where a pretest is given or where
subjects have knowledge of baseline data.
Instrumentation change involves the
difference between the pretest and posttest
measurement caused by a change in the
accuracy of the instrument rather than as a
result of the experimental treatment

 Mortality occurs when the subject

dropout rate is different between the
experimental and comparison groups.

THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY

Hawthorne Effect occurs when the
participants respond in a certain manner
because they are aware that they are being
observed.
Experimenter Effect is a threat to study
results that occurs when researcher
characteristics or behaviors influence subject
behaviors. (Usually discussed only in

 Rosenthal Effect is used to indicate the

influence of an interviewer on respondents
answers
- it has been shown that researcher
characteristics such as gender, dress, and
type of jewelry may influence respondents
answers to questions. (Usually discussed in
non experimental research)
Reactive Effects of the Pretest
(measurement effect) occurs when
subjects have been sensitized to the
treatment through taking the pretest.

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

1. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS these
types of design gives the researchers some
confidence that the independent variable was
the cause of the change in the dependent
variable.
Three criteria for a True Experimental
designs
1. The researcher manipulates the
experimental variable(s).
2. At least one experimental and one
comparison group are included in the
study.

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

- the subjects are randomly assigned to
groups
- a pretest is given to both groups
- the experimental group receives the
experimental
treatment and the comparison group
receives the
routine treatment or no treatment
- a posttest is given to both groups.
2. Quasiexperimental Designs are those
in which there is either no comparison group
or subjects are not randomly assigned to
groups.

NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

is descriptive in nature because there is

no manipulation or control of variables and
the researcher can only describe the
phenomenon as it exists.
TYPES OF NONEXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
Survey studies are investigations in
which self-report data are collected from
samples with the purpose of describing
populations on some variable or variables of
interest.

 Correlational Studies the researchers

examines the strength of relationships
between variables by determining how
changes in one variable are associated with
changes in another variable.
Correlation coefficient indicates the
magnitude and direction of the relationship
between two variables
o Positive relationship means that as
the value of one variable increases, the
value of the other variable increases
o Negative relationship inverse
relationship, means that as the value of one

 Comparative Studies examines the

differences between intact groups on some
dependent variable of interest.
Classifications of Comparative Studies
Retrospective Studies (ex post facto)
the dependent variable (effect) is identified in
the present (a disease condition, for example),
and an attempt is made to determine the
independent variable (cause of the disease)
that occurred in the past.

Prospective Studies the independent

variable or presumed cause (for example,
family history of schizophrenia) is identified
at the present time, and then subjects are
followed in the future to observe the
dependent variable (incidence of
schizophrenia in the family)
Methodological Studies are
concerned with the development, testing,
and evaluation of research instruments and
methods.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGNS
Qualitative research
focuses on gaining insight and
understanding about an individuals
perception of events
attempts to obtain rich, real, deep and valid
data, aims for hard, replicable and reliable
data. (Porter, 1989)
is concerned with in-depth descriptions of
people or events, and data are collected
through unstructured interviews and
participant observation.

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Phenomenological
Studies examine

human experiences through the descriptions

that are provided by the people involved.
(Lived experiences)
Ethnographic Studies involve the
collection and analysis of data about cultural
groups
Cameron (1990) wrote that ethnography
means learning from people.
Leininger (1985) described it as the
systematic process of observing, detailing,
describing, documenting, and analyzing the
life ways or particular patterns of a culture

 Grounded Theory Studies are studies

in which data are collected and analyzed and
then a theory is developed that is grounded in
the data
Historical Studies it concern the
identification, location, evaluation, and
synthesis of data from the past.
Two types of Evaluation of Historical Research
External criticism is concerned with the
authenticity or genuineness of the data.
Internal criticism examines the accuracy
of data.

 Case Studies are in-depth examinations

of people or groups of people

Analyzing Quantitative Data

Levels of Measurements:
Nominal measurements involves
assigning numbers to classify characteristics
into categories.
Examples: Gender, Blood type, and Marital
status
Ordinal measurements involves sorting
objects on the basis of their relative standing
on an attribute.
The attribute are ordered.
Example: A persons ability to perform ADL
will be classified into, (1) Completely

Interval measurements occurs when

researchers can specify the rank-ordering of
objects on an attribute and can assume
equivalent distance between them.
Example: Pain scale
Ratio measurements have a rational
meaningful ZERO
Example : Weight, length , income, number of
days

Advantages of Measurements
it removes subjectivity and guesswork
because measurement is based on explicit
rules, resulting information tends to be
objective, that is, it can be verified
independently.
it is a language of communication, numbers
are less vague than words and therefore can
communicate information accurately

Methods to Measure Variables

Self-report - data is gathered by
questioning people.
Example: If researcher is interested in
learning about patients perception about
pain, fear, or their sexual attitudes, the
researcher would likely ask them questions
by talking to them or through questionnaire.
Observation - an alternative to selfreport is observation of individuals behavior.
Example: Supposing a nurse want an
information regarding effectiveness of a
nursing intervention in giving care to client ,
data in this situation can be gathered through

Interview - a method of data collection in

which one person (interviewer) asks
questions of another person (respondent);
interviews are conducted either face to face
or by telephone.

Questionnaire a method of gathering

self-report information from respondents
through self-administration of question in a
written format

Bio-physiologic measurements - is an
expanded use of measures to assess the
physiologic status of subjects.
- require specialized technical instruments and
equipment for their measurements and usually
special training for the interpretation of results.
Example: Effect of relaxation technique on
oxygenation

Strategies in generating and Organizing

a Qualitative Data
Prolonged Engagement the investment
of sufficient time collecting data to have an indepth understanding of the culture, language,
or views of the group under study and to test
for misinformation and distortions
- is also essential for building trust and
rapport with the informants, which in turn
makes it more that useful, accurate, and rich
information will be obtained

 Persistent Observation which

concerns the salience of the data being
gathered and recorded
-It also refers to the researchers focus on
the characteristics or aspects of a situation
or a conversation that are relevant to the
phenomena being studied.
- If prolonged engagement provides scope,
persistent observation provides depth.
Lincoln and Guba (1985) p. 304

Triangulation refers to the use of multiple

referents to draw conclusions about what
constitutes truth, and has been compared with
convergent validation.
-It aims to overcome the intrinsic bias that
comes from single method, single observer,
and single theory study.

Four Types of Triangulation

Data Triangulation involves the use of
multiple data sources for the purpose of
validating conclusions.

Three Types of Data Triangulation

Time triangulation - involves collecting

- it involve gathering data at different times of

the day, or at different times in the year.
-The aim of studying it across time is not to
study the phenomenon longitudinally to
determine how it changes but to determine the
congruence of the phenomenon across time.
Space triangulation - involves
collection of data on the same phenomenon in
multiple sites.
- the aim is to validate the data by testing
for cross-site consistency.

 Person triangulation - involves

collecting data from different levels of people:
individuals, groups (ex. Dyads, triads,
families), collectives (ex. Organizations,
communities, institutions), with the aim of
validating data through multiple perspective
on the phenomenon.

Example of data (person/space)

triangulation
Lipson (2011) studied the experience of living
with multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS). She
collected data in four sites (Dallas, San
Francisco, Vancouver, and Halifax). Lipson

 Investigator triangulation - refers to

the use of two or more researchers to analyze
and interpret a data set.
Theory triangulation researchers use
competing theories or hypothesis in the
analysis and interpretation of their data.
Method triangulation - involves the
use of multiple methods of data collection
about the same phenomenon

Analyzing the Quantitative data

Descriptive data Analysis
Frequency distribution
Measures of Central Tendency
(Mode, median
mean)
Variability
Inferential statistics
Parametric
Nonparametric

ETHICAL
RESEARCH

THE PRINCIPLE OF BENEFICENCE

Do no Harm
Freedom from harm
- Participants must be protected from;
physical harm ( injury, fatigue),
psychological harm (stress, fear),
social harm (loss of friends), and
economic harm (loss of wages)
Freedom from Exploitation
- Preventing the participants to be
placed at a disadvantage or expose
them to situations for which they

Benefits from Research

Reasons Why people agree to
participate in research
they may perceive that there are
some direct personal benefits.
out of desire to be helpful

Major Potential Benefits to

Participants
1. Access to an intervention that might
otherwise be unavailable to them.
2. Comfort in being able to discuss their
situation or problem with a friendly,
objective person.
3. Increased knowledge about
themselves or their conditions, either
through opportunity for introspection
and self-reflection or through direct
interaction with researchers.
4. Escape from normal routine,

6. Direct monetary or material gains

through stipends or other incentives
Major Potential Risks to
Participants
1. Physical harm, including
unanticipated side effects.
2. Physical discomfort, fatigue, or
boredom
3. Psychological or emotional distress
resulting from self-disclosure,
introspection, fear of the unknown,
discomfort with strangers, fear of

4. Social risks, such as risk of sigma,

adverse effect on personal relationship,
loss of status.
5. Loss of privacy.
6. Loss of time.
7. Monetary cost (ex. For
transportation, child car, time lost from
work)

The Principle of Respect for Human

Dignity
Right to Self-determination
-Means that prospective participants
have the right to decide voluntarily
whether to participate in a study,
without risking any penalty or prejudicial
treatment.
- it also means that people have the
right to ask questions, to refuse to give
information, to ask for clarification, or to
terminate their participation.

COERCION involves explicit or

implicit threats of penalty from failing
to participate in a study or excessive
rewards from agreeing to participate.
Right to Full Disclosure
- Means that the researcher has fully
described the nature of the study, the
persons right to refuse participation,
the researchers responsibilities, and
likely risks and benefits
Right to Self-disclosure and Right

Issues relating to the Principle of

Respect
Covert data collection the
collection of information without the
participants knowledge and thus
without their consent.
Deception can involve deliberately
withholding information about the
study, or providing the participants with

The Principle of Justice

The Right to fair Treatment
Features of Right to Fair
Treatment
o The fair and nondiscriminatory
selection of participants such as any
risks or benefits will be equitably
shared: participants should be selected
based on research requirements not on
the vulnerability or compromised
position of certain people

o Respect for cultural and other forms of

human diversity
o The nonprejudicial treatment of those
who decline to participate or who
withdraw from the study after agreeing
to participate.
o The honoring of all agreement
between researchers and participants,
including adherence to the procedures
described to them and payment of any
promised stipends
o Participants access to research

o Participants access to appropriate

professional assistance if there is any
physical or psychological damage.
o Debriefing, if necessary, to divulge
information withheld before the study or
to clarify issues that arose during the
study.
o Courteous and tactful treatment at all
times.

The Right to Privacy

Anonymity
Confidentiality