04.politecnico Di Torino CASING PROGRAMME 2010

CHAPTER
CASING
PROGRAMME
04. CASING PROGRAMME

1
4.1. INTRODUCTION
As said, for an adequate characterization of a formation from a pressure
regime standpoint the following parameters have to be determined:
Pore pressure
Overburden pressure
Fracture pressure
These pressures, as seen, are strictly dependent one from the other. In
fact, pore pressures and overburden pressures are related between them
by the effective pressure, due to compaction, in accordance with the
effective stress principle and together allow the calculation of fracture
pressures.
The methods in use in the Oil Industry to foresee and calculate these
pressures and gradients have been discussed in Chapter 3 Abnormal
Pressures.

2
4.2. BASIC CRITERIA IN WELL PLANNING

Based on pressure gradient data, all fundamental information needed to plan drilling
programmes can be obtained because the following parameters can be defined in the most
accurate way:
the density and rheological properties of the drilling mud;
the optimal depths for setting the casings;
the number and diameter of the casings to use;
the grade and thickness of steel for the casings to withstand the stresses induced by the
drilling and production processes;
the density and rheological properties of cement slurries;
the planning and optimization of the hydraulic programme (pumps and surface equipment
selection, flow rates, horsepower distribution);
drilling rig potential, which is related to the geometry (size, length) and weight of the
casing to run in;
the selection and optimization of drilling bits;
the definition of the mechanical characteristics of drill strings and tubings for the DST
and production tests, acid jobs, hydraulic fracturing;
the choice of the wellhead and the safety equipment, such as the BOPs, choke manifold
and surface equipment in general;
the installation of the most suitable equipment and sensors for continuous and in real-time
monitoring of the drilling process;
the estimation of well cost with the relative budget allocation.
3
4.3. CASING DESIGN SEQUENCE (3 steps)

Once the three pressure gradient curves versus depth have been
obtained using the methods previously described, it is possible to take the
following decisions:
1. define the density the mud must have versus depth;
2. the next step consists in determining the depths at which the various
casing strings shall be run, that is the casing setting depths. This also
implies the number of casing strings required to case the hole from
surface to bottom;
3. knowing the depths of setting and the pressures acting in the well, it is
then possible to calculate the stresses at which the various casing
strings will be subjected during drilling and production and calculate the
mechanical properties the casings should have in order to withstand
these stresses.

4
4.3.1. MUD DENSITY DETERMINATION

The mud weight (or density) should be slightly higher than the pore
pressure gradient (usually 100 g/litre), when in static conditions (no mud
circulation), and below the fracture gradient (plus a certain safety
margin depending on the particular situation), when in dynamic conditions
(with mud circulation).
This means that in overpressured zones, the mud density must be

increased with the depth as does the pore pressure gradient.
For practical reasons, at the rig site the mud density is increased following
step by step patterns, and not continuously, as shown in the next slide.

5
4.3.1. MUD DENSITY DETERMINATION

0
500
1.00
1.50
2.00
FRACTURE
GRADIENT
MUD DENSITY
(theoretical)
1000
1500
MUD DENSITY
(actual)
2000
2500
3000
3500
PORE PRESSURE
GRADIENT
4000
4500
5000
6
2.50
4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION
The next step consists in the determination of the depths at which the
various casing strings shall be run, taking into account safety margins,
knowledge of the area, previous experiences, expected hole problems.
This sequence of calculations will also define the number of casing

strings required to case the hole from surface down to bottom.

7

SELECTION CRITERIA AND PROCEDURE
The procedure usually followed to determine the casing points is fairly simple and is
based on a bottom up procedure,
procedure that is:
1.
Firstly, it is assumed that the final production casing will be set at bottomhole if the
well is hydrocarbon bearing (if not the case, the hole will remain open, but the
procedure will be the same): this will be the production casing string. In case the
well will not be productive, this string will not be run.
2.
To determine the immediately previous casing, a straight line is traced, which

starts from the bottom of the well in correspondence of the maximum mud density
predicted there. This straight line will intersect the fracture gradient curve at a
certain depth, where both the fracture gradient and the mud density coincide. For
safety reasons this depth is increased by some hundred meters (depending on the
trend of the gradients), so that the density of the mud in hole will be lower than the
fracture gradient of the open hole by a set amount. This is an intermediate casing
string.
3.
The procedure continues in the same way and other intermediate casings can be
required before reaching the surface.
8
SELECTION CRITERIA AND PROCEDURE

4.
A first large diameter casing, the conductor pipe (42, 30), is usually set at
around 30-50 m with the purpose to protect the shallower formations from caving or
collapsing or for avoiding any eventual stability problem of the drilling rig. If this
casing is driven, it is called the drive pipe.
5.
A second casing, the surface casing (30, 26, 20), is also positioned at a depth
between 100 and 500 m, with the scope to make possible the installation of the
BOPs and excluding areas with low facture gradients.
6.
The number of casing strings required in a well varies between 4 and 7, depending
on the depth, pressure gradients trend and targets to be reached.
7.
An example of calculation is shown here below.

9
EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION
1. WELL DATA
-
Total Depth: 5000 m
Overpressures Top: 2150 m
Pore Pressure Gradient at Total Depth: 2.00 kgf/cm2/10 m
Fracture Gradient at Total Depth: 2.15 kgf/cm2/10 m
Maximum Mud Density: 2.06 kg / litre at Total Depth
Pore Pressure Gradient and Fracture Gradient Development: as per slide 11
Mud Density: as per slide 11

10

0
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
MUD DENSITY
AND PRESSURE
GRADIENTS
DEVELOPMENT
3500
4000
4500
5000
11
OPERATIVE EXAMPLE
(CASING DESIGN)
2. CALCULATIONS
2.1 Production Casing or Liner

If the well results productive,
bottom hole (5000 m)
the production casing string will be run at
In case the well results dry, it will be plugged and abandoned.

The running of a liner instead of an entire casing string will be evaluated at due
time. In case a liner will appear to be the better solution, it will overlap the last
(say the deepest) intermediate casing string for at least 200 m, design
practice.
12

0
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50 kgf/cm 2/10 m
500
1000
1500
D
E
P
T
H
,
m
2000
2500
3000
3500
PRODUCTION
CASING
(OR LINER)
4000
4500
5000
13

2.2. Intermediate Casing
- Maximum Mud Density, df : 2.06 kg/litre at 5000 m
- Trace a straight line parallel to the depth axis until it intersects the fracture
gradient curve in correspondence of a value of 2.06 kgf/cm2/10 m.
- This happens at a depth of 2700 m, where the pressure exerted by the mud in hole
equals that of the fracture pressure: 556.2 kgf/cm2. In theory, this should be the setting
depth of the intermediate casing.
- But for safety reasons, a margin of some tens of kgf/cm2 (10-30 kgf/cm2) should be
maintained in favour of the fracture pressure (to take into account friction losses during
mud circulation, surge pressures, etc.). For this example, suppose to need a safety
margin P of about 20 kgf/cm2 (even a bit less is OK).
- If the casing is set in correspondence of a fracture gradient= 2.12 kgf/cm2/10 m, which
occurs at 3250 m, an acceptable safety margin of 19.5 kgf/cm2 is obtained. In fact:
3250 (2.12 2.06)/10 = 19.5 kgf/cm2
- So, this final intermediate casing will be run at 3250 m.
14

0
1.00
1.50
2.00
500
2.50
FINAL
INTERMEDIATE
CASING
1000
1500
2000
Theoretical Setting Depth

2700 m
2500
3000
Effective Setting Depth

3250 m
3500
4000
4500
5000
15

2.3. Intermediate Casing
- Maximum Mud Density at 3250 m, df : 1.92 kg/litre
- Trace a straight line (Line 2), starting from the value of the mud density at 3250 m
parallel to the depth axis until it intersects the fracture gradient curve in
correspondence of a value of 1.92 kgf/cm2/10 m.
- This happens at a depth of 1550 m, where the pressure exerted by the mud in hole
equals that of the fracture pressure: 297.6 kgf/cm2.
- In theory, this should be the setting depth of this other intermediate casing.
- Supposing to maintain a safety margin of about 15 - 20 kgf/cm2 for the same
reasons as before, the casing must be set deeper.
- To obtain a safety margin of 17 kgf/cm2, the new depth is 2125 m, where a fracture
gradient = 2.00 kgf/cm2/10 m can be read:
2125 x (2.00-1.92)/10 = 17 kgf/cm2
- This further intermediate casing will be run at 2125 m.
16

0
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
500
1000
Theoretical Setting Depth

1550 m
1500

2125 m
2000
2500
3000
LAST BUT ONE

INTERMEDIATE
CASING
3500
4000
4500
5000
17

2.4. Surface Casing
- Maximum Mud Density at 2150 m, df : 1.37 kg/litre
- Trace a straight line, starting from the value of the mud density at 2150 m, parallel to
the depth axis. In this case it can be observed that the fracture gradient curve is not
intersected, neither at the surface.
- This means that in theory no casings will be required in this section of hole.
- But for what said before, a casing is necessary at around 500 m (this depth is
evaluated case by case depending on lithology, experience, expected hole problems,
etc.) in order to have the possibility to install the safety equipment (BOP stack), thus
ensuring a certain safety margin between the pressure exerted by the mud in hole and
the fracture pressure, and not to leave a too long section of hole uncased.
- If it is supposed to run this casing at 500 m, it results that:
df at 500 = 1.37 kg/litre (maximum mud density at 2150 m)
Gfr at 500 = 1.80 kgf/cm2/10 m
Safety Margin = (1.80 x 500)/10 (1,37 x 500)/10 = 21.5 kgf/cm2
- This is the surface casing set at 500 m.
18

0
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50

500 m
500
1000
SURFACE
CASING
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
19

2.5. Conductor Pipe
-
Above the surface casing, in onshore wells, a first large diameter casing, called the
conductor pipe or drive pipe (42, 30), is usually set at about 20-50 m with the
purpose to protect the shallower weak, unconsolidated formations from caving-in or
collapsing or for avoiding any eventual stability problem to the drilling rig itself.
The conductor pipe is usually driven into the ground without being cemented at all
************************.
In offshore wells, the CP setting depth, Hi, can be calculated (m) by the following
expression:
mud E H 1.03H
Hi
1.03 0.67 sed 1.03 mud
where:
E = rotary table elevation above sea level or air gap, m
H = water depth, m
sed = overburden density (expected at CP shoe), g/cm3
mud = mud density during the next drilling phase, kg/litre
20

0
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50

50 m
500
1000
CONDUCTOR
PIPE
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
21
4.3.2 CASING SETTING DEPTH V A L I D A T I O N

DESIGN EXAMPLE - OBTAINED DATA
2.6. Final casing profile (which results to be a 4-csg profile)
The calculations performed indicate that in the case of this well, with these pore
pressure and fracture pressure profiles, five casing strings are required, that is:
1. Conductor Pipe at 50 m
2. Surface Casing at 500 m
3. First Intermediate Casing at 2125 m
4. Second Intermediate Casing at 3250 m
5a. Production Casing at 5000 m
(5b. Instead of a Casing, a Production Liner can be run from 5000 m up to 3000 m,
that is 250 m inside the shoe of the Second Intermediate Casing)
The next step consists in the verification of these casing setting depths, taking
into account the 5 factors described in the following slides (REMEMBERING
THAT: the calculations made so far have already considered some of these factors).
22
4.3.3 CASING SETTING DEPTH V A L I D A T I O N

After having roughly calculated the depths to which the various
casings must be run, validation must then be carried out to be sure
that these depths are satisfactory.
Checking the accuracy of the casing setting points is based on the
analysis of the following five (5) basic items, including:
1. MAXIMUM PRESSURE ALLOWABLE AT THE CHOKE, Pch

2. MAXIMUM DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE, Pd
3. DRILLING BALANCE, Pdb
4. KICK TOLERANCE
5. EXPECTED/POSSIBLE DRILLING PROBLEMS
REMEMBER:
at the CASING always means at the TOP of the

ANNULAR sections
23
4.3.3.1. MAXIMUM PRESSURE ALLOWABLE AT THE CHOKE, Pch
Called also the Maximum Allowable ANNULAR Surface Pressure or

MAASP, it represents the maximum pressure that can be allowed to
accumulate at the wellhead in case a kick has been controlled, without
causing the fracturing of the formation below the shoe of the last casing
run in hole. It is clear that as mud density increases, Pch decreases.
The minimum acceptable value can be not less than 10 kgf/cm 2 for
surface casings and 50 g/litre difference between the fracture gradient
below the casing shoe and the density of the mud in hole (or 40-50
kgf/cm2) for the others. In some cases, in particular when deep wells
are drilled, values of Pch very low and sometimes close to zero are
accepted, otherwise the target could not be reached.
At a certain depth, H, the Pch or MAASP is given by the equation:
Pch = [(Gfr,shoe df,H) x Hshoe] / 10

24
4.3.3.1. MAXIMUM PRESSURE ALLOWABLE AT THE CHOKE, Pch

EXAMPLE
For the hole section between 2125-3250 m, the following values are
calculated:
DEPTH INTERVAL, m
Gfr at 2125 m,
kgf/cm2/10 m
MUD DENSITY,
kg/litre
Pch, kgf/cm2
2125-2200
2.00
1.36
136
2200-2300
2.00
1.50
106
2300-2650
2.00
1.60
85
2650-2850
2.00
1.71
62
2850-3150
2.00
1.81
40
3150-3250
2.00
1.92
17

25
4.3.3.2. MAXIMUM DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE, Pd

It is the difference between the pressure exerted by the mud at the
maximum density foreseen in that given hole section (generally this is
the value of the mud density at the end of each hole section) and the
pore pressure as a function of depth.
The knowledge of Pd is extremely important because it can give
indications about the drill string going to get stuck or not, especially in
presence of porous and permeable formations. Experience shows that
Pd values can vary from 200 kgf/cm2 and more down to only few
kgf/cm2 depending on local features.
The maximum differential pressure Pd as a function of depth is
calculated by means of the formula:
Pd = [(df,max Gp,H) x H] / 10

26
Usually, drilling practices do not fix strict reference limits for the values
the differential pressure can assume. This depends on the particular
situation of the area where operations take place, specifically the
characteristics of formations drilled (permeability, strength) and
composition and properties of the mud in use.
However, it is always necessary to remember that excessive
differential pressures can cause:
- pipe sticking (vs uncased hole wall)

- circulation losses
- low penetration rates.

27
EXAMPLE
The maximum differential pressure in the interval 2125-3250 m
develops as shown in the Table here below.
DEPTH, m
Gp vs DEPTH,
kgf/cm2/10 m
MAX MUD DENSITY

IN SECTION, kg/litre
Pd, kgf/cm2
2125
1.03
1.92
189
2500
1.43
1.92
122
2750
1.55
1.92
102
3000
1.68
1.92
72
3100
1.72
1.92
62
3250
1.78
1.92
46

28
4.3.3.3. DRILLING BALANCE, Pdb
It is the difference between the pressure due to the drilling mud at its
density and that of the formation, as a function of depth. This measure
indicates how much the pressure exerted by the mud exceeds the pore
pressure. In most case Pdb increases with depth, if the mud density
and the pore pressure gradient remain constant.
The knowledge of this parameter is very important because it can give
indication about risks of kicks occurrence (Pdb too much close to the
pore pressure, say too low) and about the effect on penetration rate
(too high Pdb can negatively affect penetration rates).
The Drilling Balance, Pdb, as a function of depth, H, is calculated with the
equation:
Pdb = [(df Gp)] x H / 10

29
4.3.3.3. DRILLING BALANCE, Pdb
EXAMPLE
In the section 2125-3250 m, the drilling balance varies as shown below.
DEPTH, m
Gp vs DEPTH,
kgf/cm2/10 m
MUD DENSITY vs
DEPTH, kg/llitre
PdB, kgf/cm2
2125
1.03
1.36
70
2500
1.43
1.60
43
2750
1.55
1.71
44
3000
1.68
1.81
39
3100
1.72
1.81
28
3250
1.78
1.92
46

30
4.3.3.4. KICK TOLERANCE
It represents the volume of maximum influx (kick) that, once entered the
wellbore ( annular space), can be circulated out by using a constant
bottomhole pressure method without fracturing the formation below the
shoe of the previous casing.
SEE THE WELL CONTROL CHAPTER
This volume Vi,H is calculated by the following expression:
4
Vi , H 10 Ca G frac H shoe
H G
shoe
frac
mud H mud 10 p p
p p mud i
where:
- Vi,H = kick tolerance, m3
- Ca = annular capacity below shoe per unit length, litre/m
- Gfrac= fracture gradient at the casing shoe, kgf/cm2/10 m
- Hshoe = casing shoe depth, m
- mud = mud density at H, kg/litre

- H = current depth, m
- i = density of influx fluid, kg/litre
- pp = pore pressure at H, kgf/cm2
It has ALWAYS to be verified at least for the SURFACE and the INTERMEDIATE
casings.
31
4.3.3.4. KICK TOLERANCE
KICK TOLERANCE: MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE VALUES

Hole Size, D
in
Maximum Kick Tolerance

Volume
m3
bbl
D 23
40
250
23 > D 17 1/2
24
150
17 1/2 > D 12
16
100
12 1/4 > D 8
50
D < 8
25
The Kick Tolerance must be calculated and verified for all surface and
intermediate casings in order to guarantee (at least) these maximum values.

32
4.3.3.5. EXPECTED/POSSIBLE DRILLING PROBLEMS
When selecting the casing setting depths, other factors should be taken into
consideration, especially for what regards the shallower casings, such as:
Shallow Gas
Hole Ageing (time dependent deformations of the rocks: Creep)
Unstable Formations
Seepages and Circulation Losses
Deviated or Horizontal Drilling
Production Requirements: Open Hole vs Cased Hole
Economics

33
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
20
CASING POINT
SELECTION
500
Fracture
Gradient
1000
Pressure Gradients
(kgf/cm2/10m)
13 3/8
1500
Pore Pressure
Gradient
Mud
Density
2000
9 5/8
2500
7
3000
34
4.3.3.6.
Prof.
m
DESIGN EXAMPLE
Gradienti di Pressione - Kg/cm2/10m
Casing
1.0
0
1.5
2.0
Pressione Differenziale - Kg/cm2
2.5
20
40
60
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Margine alla Choke - Kg/cm 2

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
0 20 40 60 80 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
G
G
500
20"
500
1300
13 3/8"
Profondit
m
1000
1500
2000
2500
9 5/8"
2500
3000

35
4.3.3.6. DESIGN EXAMPLE

Final Casing Profile
After having verified the casing setting depths on the basis of the 5 factors previously
seen, five casing strings are required for the well under examination, that is:
1. Conductor Pipe at 50 m
2. Surface Casing at 500 m
3. First Intermediate Casing at 2125 m
4. Second Intermediate Casing at 3250 m
5. Production Casing at 5000 m
The next step consists in the determination of the sizes (diameters) of the
holes to be drilled and those of the casings to be run.

36
4.3.3.6. DESIGN EXAMPLE

Casings are joints 11-13 m long, which, once threaded together, can completely case
the well at the planned depths.

37
4.3.4. FUNDAMENTAL CASING FUNCTIONS
Allow the installation of the Wellhead and BOPs.

Allow to circulate the drilling fluid up to the surface.
Isolate formations with different pore pressure and fracture
gradients.
Exclude as soon as possible formations which can cause
drilling problems because of their geological characteristics and
(mainly) their hydraulic features.
Protect potentially productive formations.

38
4.3.5. CASING TYPES
CONDUCTOR PIPE
SURFACE CASING
INTERMEDIATE CASING/S
PRODUCTION CASING

39
4.3.5.1. CONDUCTOR PIPE

The Conductor Pipe, CP, is the first string to be run in a well and has the main
functions :
to protect the shallower formations from any contamination due to the drilling fluids;
to prevent dangerous wash-outs and erosion of the loose, unconsolidated topsoil,
which can, sometimes, result in big problems for the stability of the rig itself;
it is of large dimensions, generally from 16, 18-5/8, 20, 24, 30 and 36.
The setting depth of the Conductor Pipe is usually very shallow (30-50 m and at
maximum around 100 m) and is chosen in such a way to permit that the drilling fluid
may be circulated to the mud pits while drilling the surface hole. The CP seat must be
in an impermeable formation with enough resistance to fracturing to allow the
circulation of the mud to the surface.
The CP can be either driven by a pile driver down to a depth where the casing does not
enter anymore into the topsoil or run in a drilled hole. In this last case, a guide shoe is
usually welded on the last joint of the CP and the cement slurry is pumped through a
swedge, which is screwed to the joint closest to the surface. The cement slurry is
normally pumped up to the surface.

40
4.3.5.2. SURFACE CASING

The second string, which is run immediately after the CP, is the surface casing, set
usually around 100-500 m; its size can range between 13-3/8, 16, 18-5/8, 20 and 24.
The main objectives of the surface casing are:
to protect the potential fresh-water levels from the contamination of the drilling fluids;
to allow the installation of the BOP stack;
to help supporting the weight of the successive drilling strings and the production
equipment.
Its setting depth should be into an impermeable level below any fresh-water bearing
formation, sometimes as deep as 1000 - 1500 m. Of course, if there is the risk to
encounter shallow gas-containing formations or gravel is expected, the setting depth of
the surface casing can be shallower. However, the setting depth should be deep enough
to allow drilling to the next casing setting point without any risk of fracturing and
providing reasonable assurance that broaching to the surface will not occur in case the
BOP are closed to contain a kick (minimum choke margin required: 10 kgf/cm2).
41
4.3.5.3. INTERMEDIATE CASING(S)

One or more intermediate casing strings (1-3) are often required to deepen a well
with the purpose:
to seal off troublesome formations, such as weak zones with low fracture gradients,
overpressured intervals, salt beds, sloughing shales, reactive formations, deviated
sections, etc.;
to get closer to the target;
to allow the use of higher density muds, being placed in higher fracture gradient
formations (minimum choke margin required: 40 kgf/cm2);
to install higher performance BOP stack;
to isolate intermediate mineralized formations.
The diameter of these casings normally ranges between 13 3/8 and 7 and the depth
can reach 5000 m or more. The intermediate casing is often the longest and the
heaviest string run in the well and its role is essential to reach the target.
42
4.3.5.4. PRODUCTION CASING

The production casing or production liner is the last and most important string of a
well; its primary functions are:
the isolation and protection of all the zones above and within the production levels;
housing for all the production equipment;
the execution in safe conditions of all those operations which are usually required
during the production life of a well;
the containment of the producing fluids in case of production string (tubings) failure.
Common sizes of the production strings vary between 9 5/8 to 4 and can be set at
depths from 1500 m down to 7500 m and more.

43
4.3.5.5. LINERS
Liners are sections of a casing

string, that cover the hole from
bottom up to as certain depth,
but not up to the surface. The
liner top is usually hanged
inside a previous casing string,
LINER
TOP
CASING
SHOE
(the overlapping length is about

200 250 metres).

44
4.3.5.5. LINERS
The main advantages of a liner are:
costs containment;
decrease of the weight of the tubulars to handle (effects on rig selection);
better hydraulics;
mechanical integrity when production starts;
more flexibility in completion schemes.
The main disadvantages of liner installation are:
risk of poor pressure integrity in correspondence of the liner top because
of poor cementation or due to wear of the casing on which the liner is
hanged;
risk to cement the liner running equipment;
difficulty in obtaining good cementing jobs due to the small clearance
between casing and liner or hole and liner;
need to install a bridge plug above the liner top in case of BOP removal
in case the completion string has not been run and landed yet..

45
4.3.5.5. LINERS
Liners can be distinguished into:

- drilling liners
- production liners
All liners can be tied-back to surface during their working life.
Anticipation of slide 78: In high pressure wells (surface or) intermediate

casings above liners are very likely to run heavy mechanical risks when
deeper high pressure horizons are reached. One solution to this problem is to
tie-back the liner by a string going from the liner top up to the surface, thus allowing
isolating that intermediate casing.

46
4.3.5.5.1. DRILLING or INTERMEDIATE LINERS

The setting of a DRILLING liner is often an economically convenient decision
particularly in deep wells as opposed to running a full string. Such a decision must
be carefully considered, since it requires that the casing (run before the liner) is
suitable to withstand the pressure conditions as it were set at the depth of the liner.
If drilling is planned to continue below the drilling liner, then its requirements, in
particular for what concerns the burst resistance, must be further increased. This
well profile, obviously, is expensive, because of the higher performances the
intermediate string must possess. Furthermore, the continuous wear, at which the
intermediate string is subjected to, should be carefully evaluated and predicted.
AIM :
Drilling or intermediate liners are set primarily to case off and isolate lostcirculation zones, overpressured intervals, troublesome formations; this is
necessary to make possible the drilling of the next hole section. Cementing these
strings is often very difficult.
47
4.3.5.5.2. PRODUCTION LINERS

If a PRODUCTION liner is planned, the intermediate drilling liner is usually tied-back up
to the surface; good drilling practices (GOFPs) suggest that this operation has to be
accomplished before drilling the next hole section, where the production liner will be
placed. That means that (when necessary) it is usual to design a drilling liner,
which is tied-back and then followed (in time) by the drilling activity leading to run a
deeper production liner.
Often, the production liner too is bound during its working life to be tied-back
up to the surface. If this operation is planned, the intermediate casing string can be
designed to withstand lower mechanical stresses, resulting in running lower level risks
and/or achieving considerable cost savings.
NOTICE:
Cementing production liners is usually difficult, because zonal isolation is essential
during the production life of the well and any subsequent work over activity.
48
4.3.5.5.2. PRODUCTION LINERS
LINER TIE-BACK
LINER TOP

49
4.4. CASING AND BIT SIZE SELECTION
CHART
To select the casing and bit sizes, the Chart shown in the following slides can
help in this task. Its ordinary bottom up use is as follows:
1.
define the size the casing or the liner must have when the bottom of the hole will be
cased (HS is one of the fundamental data contained inside any official agreement
DC OC, usually decided by OCs). This will be the production casing or liner size;
2.
enter the Chart with that size;
3.
follow the arrows on the Chart; they indicate the hole sizes that may be required to
run the last casing. If, for instance, the production casing has a 5 diameter, the
hole to be drilled could have a 6 or 6 1/8 size;
4.
continue upwards (in the well) until surface casing has been selected.
Regular solid lines indicate commonly used bits for that size pipe and
can be considered to have adequate clearances to run and cement the
csg or liner; optional broken lines indicate possible alternatives. If
special needs arise the casing-bit size combinations can be modified as
required.
50

51

52

53

30" CP
26 HOLE
20" CASING
16 OR 17 HOLE
13 CASING
12 HOLE
9 CASING
8 HOLE
7 CASING
STANDARD CASING PROFILE

54
Standard
Casing
Profile
13 3/8 CP
30" CP
Slim
hole
Casing
Profile
20
csg
13 3/8" csg
9 5/8" csg
7" csg
5" csg
9 5/8" csg
4 1/2"
hole
hole 8 1/2"
7" csg
55

Recently, a new approach to casing profile, based on a drastic reduction of the
clearances between hole sizes and casing sizes (by 1 to 1.5), has been introduced
thanks to Eni & other Oil Companies efforts. This new approach is called Lean Profile
and a comparison with standard profiles is shown in the Table below.
Another version of the Lean Profile Concept foresees a further slight reduction in holecasing clearances and is called Extreme Lean Profile.

56

30 CP
28 Hole x 24 CP
28 Hole x 24
22 Hole x 18 csg
Lean Profile
17 Hole x 16 csg
22 Hole x 18
Standard
Casing
Profile
16 Hole x 13
14 Hole x 13
12 Hole x 9
12 Hole x 9
8 x 7
8Hole x
7
57
Standard Profile
Hole
Casing
26
20
17
133/8
121/4
95/8
X-treme Lean Profile

Hole
28
22
171/2
143/4
121/4 (127/8)
105/8
81/2
6

58
Casing
241/2
185/8
16
133/8
113/4
95/8
7
5

DESIGN EXAMPLE
Making reference to the calculation example of Slide 21 and other ones, the
hole vs casing profile results to be:
1. 36 Hole for 30 Conductor Pipe at 50 m
2. 26 Hole for 20 Surface Casing at (400 m or) 500 m
3. 17 1/2 Hole for 13 3/8 First Intermediate Casing at 2125 m
4. 12 Hole for 9 5/8 Second Intermediate Casing at 3250 m
5. 8 1/2 Hole for 7 Production Casing at 5000 m
The next step in Casing Design is the calculation of the mechanical

characteristics the various casings should have in order to withstand the
stresses which are going to solicit them during the whole life of the
well.
59
4.5. APPROACH TO CASING DESIGN

Casing design actually includes stress analysis procedure. The task
of that procedure is to design a pressure vessel which can withstand a
variety of external, internal, thermal and self weight loading conditions,
conditions
while at the same time being subjected to wear and corrosion.
corrosion
It is obvious that loads that can affect casings during the life of the well
can not be exactly predicted; for this reason they are designed taking
into account the most demanding situations that can realistically occur
according to the policy in force and the experience and statistical data
available in each Oil Company.
It is also necessary to have as much information as possible about:
pressure and temperature gradients;
characteristics of the formations that have to be drilled;
potential hole problems;
formation fluid content & characteristics.
60

It is also necessary to know the mechanical and geometric characteristics of
the tubulars required or available.
The fundamental mechanical features of tubulars must concern and include:
resistance to internal pressure or burst;
resistance to external pressure or collapse;
resistance to axial tension.
The mechanical performance of tubulars depends on several factors, such as:
outside diameter;
wall thickness;
steel grade;
type of connection.
International Organizations and Manufacturers too usually provide these data.
61

62

In order to better understand the way the casing strings are chosen, a brief
description of the behaviour of materials is here proposed.
As load is applied to a material, deformation takes place before any final fracture
occurs. With all solid materials, some deformation can be sustained without
permanent deformation (i.e. the material behaves as an elastic body).
Beyond the elastic limit, the elastic deformation is accompanied by varying amounts
of plastic, or permanent, deformation:
If the material sustains large amounts of plastic deformation before final fracture, it
is classified as ductile material;
if the fracture occurs with small or no plastic deformation, the material is classified
as brittle material.

63

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMME
To determine the behaviour of a material, this is tested. Tests of material
performance may be conducted concerning:
tension;
torsion;
compression;
shear.
The tension test is the most common and is usually represented by plotting the
apparent stress (the total load applied on the material specimen divided by its
cross-sectional area) on the ordinates against the apparent strain (elongation
between two gauge points marked on the specimen divided by the original gauge
length) on the abscissae.
A typical plot is shown in the next slide, presenting a stress strain diagram..

64
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
65

From the analysis of the curve, it comes out that:
the first part of the curve is a straight line and corresponds to elastic deformations
according to Hookes law and represents the elastic region. The slope of the curve (that
is the ratio between the stress and the strain in the elastic region) is the modulus of
elasticity E, called also the Youngs modulus;
beyond the elastic limit, permanent or plastic deformation occurs and the stressstrain curve assumes a curvilinear trend. If the stress is released in the region between
the elastic limit and the yield strength, the material will contract along a line nearly straight
and parallel to the original elastic line, leaving a permanent set;
in steels, a phenomenon, known as yielding, occurs after the elastic limit. It can be
observed, in fact, that once a maximum value of stress is reached, a period of
deformation follows, though the stress remains constant or even decreases. The
maximum stress reached in this region is called the upper yield point, while the
minimum is called the lower yield point. In materials that do not exhibit a marked yield
point, it is customary to identify a quantity called minimum yield strength, which can be
defined as the stress at which the material has a specified permanent set (a deformation
of 0.2% is generally accepted by the Industry). For materials used to produce tubular
goods, the API specifies the yield strength as the tensile stress required to produce
a total elongation of 0.50-0.65% (depending on the grade of the steel) between the
gauge length;
66
4.5. APPROACH TO CASING DESIGN MINIMUM Y. S. CONCEPT

as extension continues beyond yielding, the material becomes stronger causing a rise
of the curve, and this maximum value of stress is called the tensile strength (TS) or the
ultimate strength of the material;
but at the same time the cross-sectional area of the specimen becomes lower as it is
drawn out. This loss of area weakens the specimen so that the stress, after having
reached its maximum as seen above, rapidly decreases and at a certain point the
material fractures and fails.
The denomination of the different grades of steel, by which the casings are made, is
based on the minimum yield strength concept and is taken as the basis for all strength
calculations.

67
4.6. APPROACH TO CASING DESIGN THE DESIGN FACTOR DF

DESIGN FACTOR (DF)
The DF is defined as the ratio between the pipe resistance to a certain load
(burst, collapse, tension) and the corresponding load estimated inside the well.
Different Design Factors are specified for the three load types and for the various
steel grades (high grade steels require higher DF because they have a smaller
margin between Yield Strength and Tensile Strength). The following DFs must be
used in casing design calculations:

68
4.6.1. CASING DESIGN CRITERIA: BURST

Burst loading on the casing is induced when internal pressure
exceeds external pressure and is, therefore, given by first calculating
the probable pressure acting externally to the casing string and the
pressure expected internally (SAY inside it). The burst pressure is,
then, the difference between the expected internal pressure and the
expected external pressure
Depending on type of casing, different boundary conditions are
assumed for calculating the stresses which tend to burst the casing;
usually a distinction is made between casings in the following way, in
order to perform the BURST LOAD COMPUTATION :
surface casing;
intermediate casings;
production casing;
liners, if any
(drilling or production).
69

SURFACE CASING
Internal
Pressure
Oil Company
know how &
GOFP affect
the
assumptions
and the
consequent
computation
methods
The wellhead pressure limit is arbitrary and is generally set equal to that of the
working pressure rating of the wellhead and BOP equipment, but with a minimum
value of 140 kgf/cm2
When an oversize BOP having a capacity greater than that necessary is selected
or in case of a subsea wellhead, the wellhead internal pressure limit will be 60%
of the calculated pressure obtained as the difference between the fracture pressure
at the casing shoe and the hydrostatic pressure of a gas column up to the well head
(methane with a density of 0.3 kg/dm3 is normally considered). In any case it shall
never be taken less than 2,000 psi (140 kgf/cm2). The use of methane for this
calculation is the worst case when the specific gravity of the fluid is unknown.
The bottom-hole internal pressure limit is set equal to the predicted fracture
gradient of the formation below the casing shoe.
Connect both the wellhead and bottom-hole internal pressure values with a
straight line to obtain the maximum internal pressure load versus depth.
External
Pressure
In wells with surface wellheads, the external pressure value is taken equal to the
hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid in which the casing has been run.
In wells with subsea wellheads:
At the wellhead: Water Depth x Seawater Density x 0.1 (kgf/cm2)
At the shoe: (Shoe Depth - Air Gap) x Seawater Density x 0.1 (kgf/cm2)
Net Pressure
The resulting burst load, or net pressure, will be obtained by subtracting, at

each depth, the external from the internal pressure
70

SURFACE CASING: 400 m
Internal Pressure:
at bottomhole: fracture pressure (GF=1.73
kgf/cm2/10 m), A = 69.2 kgf/cm2
at wellhead: BOP WP, C =140 kgf/cm2
External Pressure:
at bottomhole: hydrostatic pressure of mud
(1.10 kg/litre), D = 44 kgf/cm2
at wellhead: E = 0 (relative pressure)
(R E D here STRAIGHT LINE)
Resulting burst load (Net Pressure):
Internal Pressure - External Pressure
at wellhead, C = 140 0 =140 kgf/cm2
at bottomhole, F = 69.2 44 = 25.2
kgf/cm2
71

INTERMEDIATE CASINGS (see one slide for each of them)
Internal Pressure
Oil Company
know how &
GOFP affect the
assumptions and
the consequent
computations
The wellhead internal pressure value is taken as the 60% of the calculated
value obtained as the difference between the fracture pressure at the casing
shoe and the pressure of a gas column at the wellhead. If this value is lower
than 140 kgf/cm2, the BOP WP of 140 kgf/cm2 is considered at the wellhead.
The bottomhole internal pressure limit is equal to that of the predicted
fracture gradient of the formation below the casing shoe.
Connect both the wellhead and bottom-hole internal pressure limits with a
straight line to obtain the maximum internal pressure load.
External Pressure The external pressure value is taken to be equal to that of the formation
pressure.
With a subsea wellhead, at the wellhead, hydrostatic seawater pressure
should be considered.
Net Pressure
The resulting burst load, or net pressure, will be obtained by subtracting, at

each depth, the external from internal pressure.
IN THIS CASE THE
TREND IS NOT RECTILINEAR !!!!!!!!!!!!!!

72

INTERMEDIATE CASING: 1200 m
Internal Pressure:
at bottomhole: fracture pressure (1.95 kgf/cm2/10 m),
A = 234 kgf/cm2
at wellhead:
- 60% of bottom hole fracture pressure minus the
hydrostatic head of a column of gas (0.3 kg/dm3),
B = 0.6 (234 - 36) = 118.8 kgf/cm2
- BOP WP, C = 140 kgf/cm2
External Pressure:
pore pressure:
- at 800 m, D1 = (1.03 x 800) / 10 = 82.4 kgf/cm2
- at 1000 m, D2 = (1.20 x 1000) / 10 = 120.0 kgf/cm2
- at 1200 m, D3 = (1.375 x 1200) / 10 = 165.0 kgf/cm2

- at surface. C = 140 - 0 = 140 kgf/cm2
- at 800 m, 200 - 82.4 = 117.6 kgf/cm2
- at 1000, 218 - 120 = 98.0 kgf/cm2
- at 1200, 234 - 165 = 69.0 kgf/cm2
73

Internal Pressure:
at bottomhole: fracture pressure (1.93 kgf/cm2/10
m), A = 482.5 kgf/cm2
at wellhead: 60% of bottomhole fracture pressure
minus the hydrostatic head of a column of gas (0.3
kg/dm3),
B = 0.6 x (482.5 75) = 244.5 kgf/cm2
External Pressure:
pore pressure:
- at 800 m, D1 = (1.03 x 800)/10 = 82.4 kgf/cm2
- at 1800 m, D2 = (1.70 x 1800)/10 = 306.0 kgf/cm2
- at 2500 m, Dn = (1.03 x 2500)/10 = 257.5 kgf/cm2
- at surface, B = 244.5 - 0 = 244.5 kgf/cm2
- at 800 m, 330.0 - 82.4 = 247.6 kgf/cm2
- at 1800 m, 410.0 306.0 = 104.0 kgf/cm2
- at 2500 m, 482.5 - 257.5 = 225.0 kgf/cm2

74

PRODUCTION CASING
The worst case concerning burst
load conditions on production
casing occurs when the well is
shut-in and there is a leak in
correspondence of the top of the
tubing, or in the tubing hanger,
and the shut-in well head pressure
is applied to the top of the packer
fluid (i.e. completion fluid) in the
tubing
LEAKAGE

75

PRODUCTION CASING
Internal Pressure
Oil Company
know how &
GOFP affect the
assumptions and
the consequent
computations
The wellhead internal pressure value is obtained as the difference between

the pore pressure of the reservoir fluid and the hydrostatic pressure of the
produced fluid which is inside the tubing. In case of uncertainty on the nature
of produced fluid (hence of its density), a column of gas having density = 0.3
kg/dm3 will be considered. Actual gas/oil gradients can be used if information
on these is known.
The bottom-hole internal pressure value is obtained by adding the
wellhead internal pressure to the annulus hydrostatic pressure exerted by the
completion/packer fluid. Generally the completion fluid density is equal to, or
close to, the mud weight in which the casing has been installed.
Connect both the wellhead and the bottomhole internal pressure with a
straight line to obtain the maximum internal pressure.
External Pressure The external pressure is taken to be equal to that of the formation pressure.
With a subsea wellhead, at the wellhead, hydrostatic seawater pressure
should be considered.
Net Pressure
The resulting burst load, or net pressure, is obtained by subtracting, at each

depth, the external from the internal pressure. ALSO IN THIS CASE THE
TREND IS NOT RECTILINEAR !!!!!!!!!!!!
76

PRODUCTION CASING: 3000 m
Internal Pressure:
at wellhead: reservoir pressure minus the
hydrostatic head of the fluid to be produced (if the
density of the fluid is unknown, consider gas at 0.3
kg/dm3), A = 309 - 90 = 219 kgf/cm2
at bottomhole: wellhead pressure plus the
hydrostatic head of completion fluid,
B = 219 + (1.1 x 3000)/10 = 549 kgf/cm2
External Pressure:
pore pressure:
- at 800 m, D1= (1.03 x 800) / 10 = 82.4 kgf/cm2
- at 2100 m, D2 = (1.69 x 2100) / 10= 354.0 kgf/cm2
- at 3000 m, Dn = (1.03 x 3000) / 10 = 309 kgf/cm2
- at surface, 219 - 0 = 219 kgf/cm2
- at 800 m, 243 + 88 82.4 = 248.6 kgf/cm2
- at 2100, 282 + 231 354 = 159 kgf/cm2
- at 3000 m, 549 309 = 240 kgf/cm2
77

LINERS WITH INTERMEDIATE CASINGS
If a drilling liner has to be used, the casing in which the liner is suspended must
withstand the burst pressure that may occur while drilling below the liner.
The design of the intermediate casing string is, therefore, altered slightly:
1) Since the fracture pressure and mud weight may be greater or lower below
the liner shoe than below the casing shoe, these values must be used to design
both the intermediate casing string and the liner.
2) When performing well testing operations or producing through a liner, the
casing inside which the liner is suspended is part of the production string and
must be designed according to this criterion.
TIE-BACK STRING
In a high pressure well, the intermediate casing string above a liner may be
unable to withstand a tubing leak at surface, according to the production burst
criteria seen before. One solution to this problem is to tie-back the liner by a
string going from the liner top to surface, thus isolating this intermediate casing.
78
4.6.2. CASING DESIGN CRITERIA: COLLAPSE
Collapse loading of the casing is induced if the external pressure exceeds the
internal pressure. It occurs as a result of either or a combination of:
reduction in internal fluid pressure;
increase in external fluid pressure;
additional mechanical loading imposed by plastic formations (i.e. clay, salt)
movement.
The design of a casing string in collapse mode consists in selecting the lowest cost
pipe that has sufficient strength to meet with the desired design criteria and design
factor DF.
NOTICE:
When making a selection, if a choice exists between a lower grade heavy pipe and a
higher grade but lighter pipe, both of them providing adequate strength at similar cost,
the higher grade (lighter) pipe should be chosen due to the reduction of tension
loading.

79

SURFACE CASING
Internal
Pressure
For wells with a surface wellhead, the casing is assumed to be completely empty.
In offshore wells with subsea wellheads, it is assumed that the mud level drops
down to a certain level due to the presence of a thief zone, as shown for the
intermediate casing design.
External
Pressure
Oil Company
know how &
GOFP affect
the
assumptions
and the
consequent
computation
methods
In wells with a surface wellhead, the external pressure is assumed to be equal to

that of the hydrostatic pressure of a column of the mud in which the casing was
run.
Net Pressure
The resulting collapse load, or net pressure, is obtained by subtracting, at each

depth, the internal pressure from external pressure.
In offshore wells with a subsea wellhead, the external pressure is calculated:

at the wellhead: Water Depth x Seawater Density x 0.1 (kgf/cm2).
at the shoe: (Shoe Depth - Air Gap) x Seawater Density x 0.1 (kgf/cm2).

80

Internal Pressure:
casing completely void
- at wellhead: 0 (relative pressure)
- at bottomhole: 0 (relative pressure)
when drilling offshore and for water depths
> 400 m, the riser is considered void and the
casing filled with gas at 0.3 kg/dm3
External Pressure:
pressure of a water column (or the mud
density when circulating with mud at surface),
B = (1.1 x 400)/10 = 44 kgf/cm2
Resulting collapse load (Net Pressure):
External Pressure - Internal Pressure
- at surface, A = 0 (relative pressure)
- at bottomhole, 44 - 0 = 44 kgf/cm2

81

INTERMEDIATE CASING
Internal
Pressure
Oil Company
know how &
GOFP affect
the
assumptions
and the
consequent
computation
methods
The worst case for collapse loading occurs when a loss of circulation is
encountered while drilling the next hole section. This results in the mud level inside
the casing dropping to an equilibrium level where the mud hydrostatic head equals
the pore pressure of the thief zone. Consequently, it will be assumed that the
casing is empty to the height (H) calculated as follows:
- (Hloss - H) x dm = Hloss x Gp
- H = Hloss (dm - Gp)/dm = Hloss (1- Gp/dm)
where:
Hloss = depth at which circulation loss is expected (m)
dm = mud density expected at Hloss (kg/dm3)
Gp = pore pressure of thief zone - usually taken = 1.03 kgf/cm2/10 m
When thief zones cannot be confirmed and in case of wells with surface
wellheads or in case of exploration wells, the casing is assumed to be half empty
and the remaining part full of the heaviest mud planned to drill the next section
below the shoe.
External
Pressure
The pressure exerted on the outside of the casing is the pressure of the mud in
which the casing has been run.
In case of salt sections, consider uniform external loading equal to the
overburden pressure at the true vertical depth of the relevant point.
Net Pressure
The resulting collapse load, or net pressure, is obtained by subtracting, at each

depth, the internal pressure from external pressure.
82

INTERMEDIATE CASING
(H loss-H) x dm = H loss x Gp
H = H loss (dm - Gp) / dm
If Gp = 1.03 kgf/cm2/10m
then
H = H loss (dm - 1.03)/dm
or
H= H loss (1- Gp/dm)
Fluid Height Computation

83

Internal Pressure:
in case the depth at which circulation losses are
expected is known, the level drop is calculated
with:
H = Hloss (1 Gp / dmud)
If:
dmud = 1.80 kg/litre
Gp = 1.03 kgf/cm2/10 m
Hloss = 2500 m
the well will be empty down to H = 1069.4 m
- at surface. 0
- at 1069.4 m: 0
- at 1200 m (1200-1069.4)x1.80x0.1=23.5 kgf/cm2
External Pressure:
- pressure of the mud used to run the casing
B = (1.48 x 1200) / 10 = 177.6 kgf/cm2
-External Pressure - Internal Pressure
- at surface, A = 0
- at 1069.4 m, F = 158.3 kgf/cm2
- at 1200,
E = (177.6 - 23.5) = 154.1 kgf/cm2
84

Internal Pressure:
If the depth of expected circulation losses
is unknown, it is assumed the casing half
void and half filled with the mud to be used
in the next hole section at its maximum
density:
- from 0-600 m, C = 0
- at 1200 m, d f,max next phase x H
D = (1.80x600)/10 = 108 kgf/cm2
External Pressure:
pressure of the mud used to run the
casing, B = (1.48x1200)/10= 177.6 kgf/cm2
- at surface, A = 0
- at 600m, F = (1.48x600) / 10 - 0=88.8 kgf/cm2
- at 1200 m, E = (177.6 - 108.0) = 69.6 kgf/cm2
85

Internal Pressure:
-casing half void and for the remaining half
the mud at its maximum density
- from 0-1250 m: 0
- at 2500 m (1.1x1250)/10 = 137.5 kgf/cm2
External Pressure:
- pressure of the mud used to run the
casing, B = (1.8x2500) / 10 = 450 kgf/cm2
- at surface, A = 0
- at 1250 m, F = (1.8x1250) / 10 = 225 kgf/cm2
- at 2500 m, E = 450.0 - 137.5 = 312.5 kgf/cm2

86

PRODUCTION CASING
Internal
Pressure
Oil Company
know how &
GOFP affect
the
assumptions
and the
consequent
computation
methods
The worst case occurs when the casing is completely empty. It is in fact probable
that during the productive life of a well, tubing leaks often occur. Also wells may be
on artificial lift or have plugged perforations or very low internal pressure values
and, under these circumstances, the production casing string could be partially or
completely empty. This must be taken into consideration in the design and the
ideal solution is to design for zero pressure inside the casing which provides full
safety.
In particular situations, the Well Operations Manager may consider that the
lowest casing internal pressure is the level of a column of the lightest density
producible formation fluid.
External
Pressure
Assume the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud in which casing is installed.
In case of salt sections, consider uniform external loading equal to the
overburden pressure at the true vertical depth of the relevant point.
Net Pressure
In case of the casing being empty the resultant collapse load, or net pressure, is
equal to the external pressure at each depth.
In other cases, it will be obtained by subtracting, at each depth, the internal from
the external pressure.
87

PRODUCTION CASING: 3000 m
Internal Pressure:
casing completely void
- at surface: 0
- at bottomhole: 0
External Pressure:
- pressure of the mud used to run the
casing, B = (1.1 x 3000) / 10 = 330
kgf/cm2
Resulting collapse load (Net
Pressure):
- at surface, A = 0 (relative pressure)
- at 3000 m, B = 330 kgf/cm2

88

LINERS AND INTERMEDIATE CASINGS
1) If a drilling liner has to be used, the casing above, in which the liner is
suspended, it must withstand the collapse pressure that may occur while drilling
below the liner. Therefore the design of the intermediate casing string is slightly
altered.
2) When well testing or producing through a liner, the casing above the liner is part
of the production casing-liner string and must be designed according to this
criterion.
TIE-BACK STRING
If the intermediate string above the liner is unable to withstand the collapse
pressure calculated according to the production collapse criteria, it will be
necessary to run and tie-back a string of casing from the liner top to the surface.

89
4.6.3. CASING DESIGN CRITERIA: TENSION

Tensile failure occurs if the longitudinal force exerted on a pipe exceeds either the tensile strength
of the pipe or of its connections. Generally, the connection used in a string of casing is stronger
than the pipe body although this must always be checked out.
For situations where a connection coupling has to be of special clearance type (i.e. smaller
diameter than the normal) or if a flush joint pipe must be used, the connection will be weaker than
the pipe body.
Casing tensile loads are usually imposed by:

1) The weight of the pipe itself. The highest tensile stresses will occur at the uppermost portion
of the pipe. The tension is the weight of the pipe in air less buoyancy.
2) Bumping a cement plug.
3) Bending.
4) Shock loading:
While lowering casing through unstable formations such as cavings where the casing string may
get temporarily stuck before suddenly slipping through, thereby inducing tensile shock loads.
When landing casing in a subsea wellhead from a floater.
5) Upward and downward reciprocating movements carried out where there is a tendency to
become differentially stuck. To free the pipe considerable pull may be necessary.
6) High internal pressure will induce tensional stresses caused by radial expansion and, hence,
axial contraction.
Usually, mainly the first three parameters are taken into consideration when designing a casing.
90

BUOYANCY FORCE
The effect of buoyancy is generally assumed to be the reduction in weight of the
casing string when it is suspended in a liquid compared to its weight in air.
The buoyancy or reduction in string weight, as observed on the blocks of the rotary
table, is the resultant of pressure forces acting on all the exposed horizontal faces of a
body and in calculations is defined as negative as it acts upwards, hence reducing the
pipe weight.
The areas referred to are the tube end areas, the shoulders at point of changing casing
weights and, to a smaller degree, the shoulders on collars. The forces acting on the
areas of collar shoulders are for practical purposes negligible in casing design as the
upward and downward facing shoulders countered each other over short distances.
Buoyancy Force = Weight in Air x (Mud Density/Steel Density)
Apparent Weight = Weight in Air x [(Steel Density Mud Density)/Steel Density]
Apparent Weight = Weight in Air x Buoyancy Factor
Buoyancy Factor = 1 (mud density)/(steel density)
Steel Density = 7.85 kg / litre Steel Specific Weight = 7.85 kg force / litre
91

BENDING
When calculating tensile loading, the effect of bending must also be considered, if
applicable. The bending of the pipe causes additional stress in the walls of the pipe.
Bending causes tension on the outside of the pipe and compression on the inside of
any bend, assuming the pipe is not already under tension.

92

BENDING
Bending is caused by any deviations in the wellbore from the vertical resulting from
side-tracks, build-ups and drop-off angles. Since bending load increases the total tensile
load, it must be deducted from the usable rated tensile strength of the pipe.
For determination of the effect of bending, the following formula should be used:
TB = 15.52 D Af
where:
- = build-up rate or drop-off rate (degrees / 30 m)
- D = outside diameter of casing (in)
- Af = cross-sectional area of casing (cm2)
- TB = additional tension due to bending (kg force).
Since bending load, in effects, increases tensile load at the point applied, it must be
deducted from the usable strength rating of each section of pipe that passes the point of
bending. The section which is ultimately set through a bend must have the bending load
deducted from its usable strength up to the top of the bend. From that point up to the
top of the section the full usable strength can be used.
93

EXAMPLE OF BENDING CALCULATION
Data:
Casing: OD 13 3/8", 72 lbf/ft (107.14 kgf/m), Af = 133.92 cm2, C75, BTR
Directional well with casing shoe at 2,000 m (MD)
Kick-off point at 300m
Build-up rate: 3/30m
Maximum angle: 30 reached at 600 m
Mud weight : 1.1 kgf/dm3
Pipe body yield strength: 1,558,000 lbf (707 t force)
Design factor : 1.7
707 / 1.7 = 415 t force
Calculation:
1) Casing weight in air (Wa)
Wa = 107.14 x 2,000 = 214 t force
2) Casing weight in mud (Wm)
Wm = 214 x 0.859 = 184 t force
3) Additional tension due to the bending effect (TB)
TB = 15.52 x 3 x 13.375 x 133.92 = 83441 kg force
This stress will be added to the tensile stress already existing on the curved section of hole
4) Tension in the casing at 300 m due to its weight= 0.859 x (1700 x 107.14) = 156 t force
5) Total tension in the casing at 300 m (weight in mud + bending) = 156 + 83 = 239 t force
6) Tension in the casing at 600 m due to its weight = 0.859 x (1400 x 107.14) = 129 t force
7) Total tension in the casing at 600 m (weight in mud + bending) = 129 + 83 = 212 t force
94

EXAMPLE OF BENDING CALCULATION

95

BUMPING CEMENT PLUGS
Add the additional load due to bumping any cement plug to the casing string weight in
mud.
Take into account possible pressurization concerning both DV opening / closing
operations and packer setting operations.
Note: This pull load is calculated by multiplying the expected bump-plug
pressure by the inside area of the casing.
Example:
Casing: 9 5/8" 43.5 lb force / ft
Expected bumping cement plug pressure = 180 kgf/cm2
Inside casing area, Ai = 388.39 cm2
Additional pull load = 388.39 x 180 = 69910 kg force

96

DESIGN PROCEDURE
1) Calculate the weight of the casing string in air.
2) Calculate the weight of the casing string in mud by multiplying the
previous weight by the buoyancy factor (BF) in accordance with the mud
weight in use.
3) Add the additional load due to bumping any cement plug to the casing
string weight in mud. Take into account possible pressurization when
performing operations such as opening/closing DV valves and setting
packers.
Note: This load can be calculated by multiplying the expected bump-plug
pressure by the corresponding casing inner section area.
4) In deviated wells, calculate the additional tension due to bending.
5) Compare the obtained weight value to the csg body YS (including DF effect)
97
4.7.3.3. CASING SELECTION EXAMPLE: TENSION

50
D
100 tF
B

TENSION
Casing Length: 400 m
Weight in Air, AB= (400 x 158.47) = 63.3 t force
Weight in Mud (dm = 1.10 kg/litre), CD = 54.4 t force
A
98
4.6.5. CASING DESIGN CRITERIA: CASING WEAR

There is no reliable methods of predicting casing wear and determining the reduction
in casing burst and collapse properties due to the reduction in the thickness of casing
walls. However, when needed, some theoretical models can be applied to make a
prediction about possible wear occurrences.
In vertical wells, casing wear usually occurs in the first few joints below the wellhead
or in correspondence of intervals with a high dogleg severity (abrupt variations of
inclination and direction of the wellbore trajectory). In casing design, usually casing
wear in vertical wells is not considered unless specific cases.
In deviated wells, wear will occur in correspondence of the build-up and drop-off
sections. The casing covering these sections has to be of a higher grade or heavier
wall thickness, in particular when long drilling times are expected.

99

The major factors affecting casing wear are:
Rotation of drill pipes
Tool joint lateral load and diameter
Drilling rate
Inclination of the hole
Severity of dog legs
Steel wear factor.
** Bi-center bit employment
The wear factor depends upon several

variables including:
Mud properties
Lubricants
Drill solids
Tool joint roughness
Tool joint hardness.

100
4.6.6. CASING DESIGN CRITERIA: CORROSION

CORROSION
During the drilling phase, if there is any likelihood of a sour corrosive fluid influx,
consideration should be given to setting a sour service casing string before drilling into
the reservoir. The BOP stack and wellhead components must also be suitable for sour
service.
Oxygen (O2): Oxygen dissolved in water drastically increases its corrosion action
potential. It can cause severe corrosion at very low concentrations of less than 1.0 ppm.
Carbon dioxide (CO2): Pressure increases the solubility of CO2 and lowers the pH of
drilling fluids, while temperature decreases its solubility raising the pH. Corrosion caused
by dissolved CO2 is commonly called sweet corrosion. The partial pressure of carbon
dioxide can be determined by the formula:
Partial Pressure = Total pressure x Mol Fraction of CO2 in the gas.
Using the partial pressure of CO2 as a reference to predict corrosion, the following
relationships have been found:
partial pressure >30 psi usually indicates high corrosion risk.
partial pressure between 7-30 psi may indicate medium corrosion risk.
partial pressure <7psi generally is considered non corrosive.
101
4.6.6. CASING DESIGN CRITERIA: CORROSION

Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S): Hydrogen sulphide is very soluble in water and when
dissolved behaves as a weak acid and usually causes pitting. Attack due to the presence
of dissolved hydrogen sulphide is referred to as sour corrosion.
Other serious problems which may result from H2S corrosion are hydrogen blistering and
sulphide stress cracking.
The S.S.C. (Sulphide Stress Cracking) phenomenon is triggered off when, at
temperatures below 80C and in the presence of tension stress, the H2S comes into
contact with H2O freeing H+ ions. Temperatures above 80C inhibit the S.S.C.
phenomenon, therefore if the temperature gradient is known, this may be useful in the
selection of the tubular materials most suited to resist H2S attack. Evaluation of the
problem depends on the type of well.
The combination of H2S and CO2 is more aggressive than H2S alone and is frequently
found in oilfield environments.
It should be pointed out that H2S also can be generated by microorganisms (SRB) which
attack sulphur-containing chemicals used in the formulation of drilling fluids
102
4.6.7. CASING DESIGN CRITERIA: OTHER EFFECTS

Temperature Effects: For deep wells, reduction in yield strength must be considered
due to the effect on steel by high temperatures. If no information is available on
temperature gradients in an area, a gradient of 2.5-3C/100m should to be assumed.
Operations at low temperatures require tubulars made from steel with high ductility to
prevent brittle failures during SURFACE transport and handling.

103
4.7. CASING SPECIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

There is a wide range of casings available from Suppliers, which goes from
plain carbon steel for standard applications to exotic duplex steels (duplex
stainless steels are called duplex because they have a two-phase
microstructure consisting of grains of ferritic and austenitic stainless steel)
for extremely sour service conditions.
The available casings can be classified under two main specifications:

API SPECIFICATION (American Petroleum Institute)
non-API SPECIFICATION (materials out of API Specifications have been
developed to meet demand for higher classes of casings able to cope with
extreme conditions beyond the range of application of API casings)

104

The American Petroleum Institute (API) has an appointed Committee on
Standardization of Tubular Goods which publishes, and continually updates, a
series of Specifications, Bulletins and Recommended Practices covering the
manufacture, performance and handling of oilfield tubular goods. They also
licence manufacturers to use the API Monogram on products which meet with
their published specifications.
The Bulletin regarding tubular goods specifications is the API 5TR C3/ISO
10400 Technical Report on Equations and Calculations for Casing, Tubing,
and Line Pipe Used as Casing or Tubing; and Performance Properties Tables
for Casing and Tubing, First Edition (Identical to ISO 10400:2007), Edition: 7th
American Petroleum Institute / 01-Dec-2008 / 378 pages (based on the Bull
5C2 Bulletin on Performance Properties of Casing, Tubing and Drill Pipe,
21st Edition, October 1999).

105

It should not be interpreted that only API tubulars and connections may be
used in the field; in fact, there are situations, which can be solved only if
special materials, not yet addressed by API specifications, are used.
However, when using non-API pipes and connections, the designer must
check the methods by which the strengths have been calculated. Usually it will
be found that the manufacturer will have used the published API formulae
(reported in the above mentioned API 5TR C3), backed up by tests to prove if
the performance of the product conforms or exceeds these specifications.
Sometimes, the non-API manufacturers claim the performances of their
materials be better than those calculated using the API formulae; in these
circumstances, claims must be critically examined by the designer.
If needed, an end-user can specify more stringent chemical, physical and
testing requirements on orders.

106
4.7.1. API CASING SPECIFICATIONS

A casing is classified according to:
outside diameter: generally expressed in inches
nominal unit weight: expressed in lb force / ft (kg force / m)
grade of the steel: indicated by a letter (K, P, Q) and a number (40, 75, 110,
etc.), which represents the yield strength of the material divided by 1000
wall thickness and inside diameter;
mechanical properties of pipe body and couplings
type of connection: API Round Thread (Short or Long), Buttress, Extreme
Line
An examples of casing designation is as follows: 9 5/8 P110 47 lb force / ft

BTC @2758 (shoe depth in feet)
107
4.7.1.2. API CASING GRADES

API PRODUCTS
There are eleven API casing grades and seven tubing grades.
CASINGS
TUBINGS
H-40
H-40
J-55
J-55
K-55
M-65
N-80
N-80
L-80
L-80
C-90
C-90
C-95
T-95
T-95
P-110
P-110
Q-125

108
4.7.1.3. API CASING CONNECTIONS

API THREADED CONNECTIONS
A threaded connection consists of two members:
a pipe or pin member
a coupling or box member.
The externally threaded member is called the pipe or pin member. The
internally threaded member is called the coupling or box member. Two pin
members are connected together by means of a coupling, which is a short
segment of pipe slightly larger in diameter than the pipe, but threaded internally
by each side. The pins may be the same thickness as the pipe body (non-upset)
or thicker than the pipe body (upset). All API threaded and coupled (T&C)
casing and line pipe are non up-set, while tubings are manufactured with either
non-upset or external upset ends.
Threads as applied to tubular connections are used to mechanically hold two
pieces of pipe together in axial alignment. The threads may or may not be
required to act as a leak resistant element.

109
NON-UPSET COUPLING
UPSET COUPLING
110

API THREADED CONNECTIONS
The four most common API threaded connections are:
Line Pipe Threads
8 Round Short (ST&C) and Long (LT&C) Threads
Buttress (BTC)
Extreme Line Threads
Long and short threads are identical except for thread length.
These connections are of a type called interference connections, i.e. the
connection seals by the wedging action (interference) of two tapered surfaces
coming into contact. However the surfaces are not in full contact over their
entire area. Sealing of the clearance area of both eight round and buttress
threads is accomplished with API modified thread lubricant (and sometimes by
premium thread lubricants.)

111

LINE PIPE THREADS

112

ROUND (LONG AND SHORT) THREADS

113

BUTTRESS THREADS

114

EXTREME-LINE THREADS

115
4.7.1.4. API CASING TABLES
API Range Length, m

116

Chemical
Composition
of API
Tubulars

117
4.7.2. NON-API CASING SPECIFICATIONS

118
4.7.3. CASING SELECTION EXAMPLE
CASING PROFILE
1.
CAONDUCTOR PIPE: 30 AT 50 m
2.
SURFACE CASING: 20 AT 400 m
3.
FIRST INTERMEDIATE CASING: 13 3/8 AT 1200 m
4.
SECOND INTERMEDIATE CASING: 9 5/8 AT 2500 m
5.
PRODUCTION CASING: 7 AT 3000 m

119

20 CASING

120

20 CASING

121
4.7.3.1. CASING SELECTION EXAMPLE: BURST

at wellhead, C = 140 0 = 140 kgf/cm2
at bottomhole, F = 69.2 44.0 = 25.2 kgf/cm2
BURST RESISTANCE
Design Factor: 1.05
J-55 94 lbf/ft: 2110 psi =148 kgf/cm2, (DF=1.05):141 kgf/cm2
J-55 106.5 lbf/ft: 2410 psi=169 kgf/cm2, (DF=1.05): 161
kgf/cm2
kgf/cm2

122
4.7.3.2. CASING SELECTION EXAMPLE: COLLAPSE

- at surface, A = 0
- at bottomhole, B = 44 - 0 = 44 kgf/cm2
COLLAPSE RESISTANCE
Design Factor: 1.10
J-55 94 lbf/ft: 520 psi = 36 kgf/cm2, (DF=1.10): 33
kgf/cm2
J-55 106.5 lbf/ft:770 psi=54 kgf/cm2, (DF=1.10): 49
kgf/cm2
kgf/cm2

123

50
D
100 t
J55 106.5 lb/ft = 440 t
TENSION
J-55 106.5 lbf/ft (158.47 kg force / m)

Casing body Yield Strength: 1685000 lbf = 749 t
force
(DF = 1.70) 440.5 t force
Weight in Air, AB= 400 x 158.47 = 63.3 t force
Weight in Mud (dm = 1.10 kg/litre), Casing WW =
= 54.4 t force
Both bumping plug pressure effect and
bending load effect may involve up to 90 t
force surcharge each.
(54.4 + 90 + 90)

124
vs
440.5
OK

13 3/8 CASING

125

13 3/8 CASING

126

INTERMEDIATE CASING: 13 3/8 at 1200 m
- at surface. C = 140 - 0 = 140 kgf/cm2
- at 800 m, 200.0 - 82.4 = 117.6 kgf/cm2
- at 1000, 218 - 120 = 98 kgf/cm2
- at 1200, 234 - 165 = 69 kgf/cm2
BURST RESISTANCE
Design Factor: 1.05
J-55 54.50 lbf/ft: 2730 psi =192 kgf/cm2,
(DF=1.05):183 kgf/cm2
J-55 61 lbf/ft: 3090 psi=217 kgf/cm2, (DF=1.05):
207 kgf/cm2
J-55 68.0 lbf/ft: 3450 psi=243 kgf/cm2, (DF=1.05):
231 kgf/cm2
N-80 72 lbf/ft: 5380 psi = 378 kgf/cm2,
(DF=1.05): 360 kgf/cm2
127

- at surface, A = 0
- at 1069.4 m, F = 158.3 kgf/cm2
- at 1200, E = 177.6 - 23.5 = 154.1 kgf/cm2
J-55 54.50 lbf/ft: 1130 psi =79 kgf/cm2, (DF=1.10) : 72

kgf/cm2
J-55 61 lbf/ft: 1540 psi=108 kgf/cm2, (DF=1.10): 98
kgf/cm2
kgf/cm2
N-80 68 lbf/ft: 2260 psi = 159 kgf/cm2, (DF=1.10): 145
kgf/cm2
N-80 72 lbf/ft: 2670 psi = 188 kgf/cm2, (DF=1.10):
171 kgf/cm2

128

100
D
200 tF
N-80 72 lb force / ft
TENSION
N-80 72 lbf/ft (107.13 kgf/m)

Pipe Body Yield Strength: 1.661.000 lbf =
752 t fprce (DF = 1.70) 442 t force
Weight in Air AB = 1200 x 107.13 = 128.5 t
force
Weight in Mud (dm = 1.48 kg/litre), (BF=0.81)
CD = 104 t force
A
129
OTHER SLIDES

130

When needed, the position and magnitude of volumetric wear in a casing string can be
theoretically estimated by calculating the energy imparted by the rotating tool joints to
the casing at different casing points and dividing this by the amount of energy required
to wear away a unit volume of casing. The percentage of casing wear at each point
along the casing is then calculated once the volumetric wear has been obtained.
The volumetric wear is proportional to an empirical wear factor, which is defined as
the coefficient of friction divided by the volume of casing material removed per unit of
energy input. The Wear Volume, V, equals:
V = (60 x x F x L x D x N x S)/P
where:
V = Wear Volume Per Foot (in3/ft)
F = Wear Factor (in2/lbf)
L = Lateral Load on Drill Pipe Per Foot (lbf/ft)
D = Tool Joint Diameter (in)
N = Rotary Speed (RPM)
S = Drilling Distance (ft)
P = Penetration Rate (ft/hr)
Note: The chemical action of gases such as H2S, CO2 and O2 tends to reduce the
surface hardness of steel and, thus, contributes significantly to the rate of wear.
131

The recommended procedure to determine the wear effect on casing mechanical
performances is the following
1) conduct the casing design as previously seen;
2) in correspondence of the wear points, calculate the allowable reduction in wallthickness of the casing that makes the burst or collapse resistance of the casing equal to
the calculated burst or collapse loads, including the appropriate Design Factors;
3) estimate the wear rate in terms of loss of wall thickness per operating day. A wear
percentage below 7% is considered acceptable;
4) from the loss in wall thickness and the rate of wear, calculate the allowable operating
time in the casing string:
- If the allowable operating time is less than the planned operating time, use
heavier casings or increase their grade 100 m above and to 60 m below the
wear point until the allowable operating time exceeds the anticipated operating
time.
- If the allowable operating time is greater than the planned operating time do
not include a wear allowance.
132

DETECTION OF CASING WEAR
Detecting casing wear can be achieved by two methods:
use of magnets in the mud flow return in order to catch any piece of metal present in the
drilling fluid.
recording of caliper logs immediately after the casing has be run into the hole in order to
provide a base log. A wear log can then be run at any time while drilling the next hole
section.
CASING WEAR REDUCTION
If there are fears about casing wear, the following drilling practices can be applied to
minimize this occurrence:
use of down hole motors and turbines;
use of rubber protectors on drill pipes;
use of drill pipes without hard-facing;
minimization of doglegs;
minimization of sand content inside the mud;
use of oil-based mud.

133

API PRODUCTS
H-40
H-40 is the lowest strength casing and tubing grade in the specifications, with minimum yield strength
of 40 ksi, and a minimum tensile strength of 60 ksi. H-40 is a carbon type steel. The maximum yield
strength of 80 ksi assures suitability for use in hydrogen sulfide service.
J-55
J-55 is both a casing and tubing grade and has a minimum yield strength of 55 ksi an a minimum
tensile strength of 75 ksi. J-55 is a carbon type steel. As with H-40, the maximum yield strength of 80
ksi assures suitability for use in hydrogen sulfide service.
K-55
K-55 is a casing grade only, with a minimum yield strength of 55 ksi and a minimum tensile strength of
95 ksi. K-55 is also classified as a carbon type steel. K-55 was developed after J-55 and has a higher
tensile strength. Some ask why there are two grades with a 55 ksi minimum yield strength. In fact, the
collapse and internal yield strengths of both grades are identical. But due to the higher tensile strength,
K-55 has a casing joint strength that is approximately 10% higher than J-55. The API equations for joint
strength for tubing do not include the use of tensile strength, hence, only J-55 is used for tubing.
K-55 has a maximum yield strength of 80 ksi, and is considered suitable for use in
hydrogen sulfide service at all temperatures.
134

API PRODUCTS
N-80
N-80, with a minimum yield strength of 80 ksi, and a minimum tensile strength of 100 ksi, is the highest
strength grade in Group 1. N-80 is classified as an alloy type steel. N-80 is not considered suitable for
hydrogen sulfide service at all temperatures, due to its maximum yield strength of 110 ksi,.
L-80
L-80 is by far the most widely used high strength grade for H2S. The minimum yield strength is 80 ksi,
the minimum tensile strength is 95 ksi, and the maximum yield strength is 95 ksi. The method of
manufacture can be either ERW or seamless. It is classified as an alloy type steel. L-80 is both a
casing and tubing grade and was the first grade to have a maximum hardness requirement, Rockwell
C-23.
C-90
API added C-90 to its specifications in 1983. C-90 has enjoyed increasing usage in recent years in
critical high pressure wells containing hydrogen sulfide. C-90 is both a casing and tubing grade.
Minimum yield strength is 90 ksi, and minimum tensile strength is 100 ksi. The maximum yield strength
is restricted to 105 ksi. The method of manufacture is specified as seamless with the chemistry an
alloy steel (containing chromium and molybdenum) for added toughness. Maximum hardness is
restricted to Rockwell C-25.4.
135

API PRODUCTS
P-105 (Discontinued by API)
P-105 is a tubing grade only, with a minimum yield strength of 105 ksi, a minimum tensile strength of
120 ksi, and a maximum yield strength of 140 ksi. The steel type is alloy. P - 105 and later P-110 are
based on the premium grades of casing offered by mills in the early 1940s.
P-110
P-110 is a casing and tubing grade with a minimum yield strength of 110 ksi, a minimum tensile
strength of 125 ksi, and a maximum yield strength of 140 ksi. When P-110 was created. it was thought
that this grade would handle all future deep drilling requirements. However, drilling depths and
pressures continue to increase, and higher grades are now in regular use.
Q-125
This grade is used for casing in wells with very high pressures. Q-125 is was adopted by API in 1985.
The specification is Group 4. Q-125 has a yield strength range of 125 ksi to 150 ksi and a minimum
tensile strength of 135 ksi. Q-125 can be made by either the ERW or seamless process of
manufacture. Q-125 is the first API grade to require impact tests to confirm steel toughness.

136

API PRODUCTS
V-150
While not an API grade, grade V-150 is occasionally used, and is included here, for information
purposes. V-150 has a yield range of from 150 ksi to 180 ksi with a minimum tensile strength of 160
ksi.

137
4.6.4. CASING DESIGN CRITERIA: BIAXIAL STRESS

BIAXIAL STRESS
When the entire casing string has been designed for burst, collapse and tension,
eventual reductions in burst and collapse resistance due to biaxial loading
need to be considered.
In principle, collapse resistance is reduced when subjected to axial tension and
increased when subjected to compression. The effects of axial stress on burst
resistance are negligible for the majority of wells.
The adverse effects of tension on collapse resistance usually affect the upper
portion of a casing string, which is under tension, reducing the collapse resistance of
the pipe. This effect shall be taken in due consideration and verification for collapse;
after these calculations, the upper section of casing string may need to be upgraded.
By calculating the magnitude of tension (plus) or compression (minus) loads at the
top and bottom of each casing section, the strength reductions can be calculated by
using the Holmquist & Nadai ellipse (maximum shear-strain energy diagram), as
shown in the next slide.

138

BIAXIAL STRESS

139

BIAXIAL STRESS DESIGN PROCEDURE
The value of the reduction of the nominal rated collapse strength of a casing due to
tensile load shall be determined for each casing section as follows:
1. determine the neutral point, that is the section of casing above which it is in tension
and below which it is in compression. The section in tension will have a decrease in
collapse resistance, while that in compression an increase (this increase is neglected
and the nominal collapse resistance is considered). The neutral point is calculated with
the expression: dneutral = dc (1 d m/7.85)
where:
d neutral = depth of the neutral point, m

dc = depth of the casing, m
dm = mud weight, kgf/litre
2. determine the total tensile load without taking into account the additional load due to
bumping plugs;
3. calculate the ratio X between the actual applied stress and the yield strength of the
casing;
4. enter with the value of X, as calculated above, into the curve effect of tension on
collapse resistance and find the corresponding percentage collapse rating (Y);
5. multiply the collapse resistance without tensile loads by the factor Y, in order to
obtain the reduced collapse resistance value. This is the collapse pressure which the
casing can withstand at the top of the string.
140

BIAXIAL STRESS DESIGN PROCEDURE
EXAMPLE COLLAPSE CALCULATION
Determine the collapse resistance of a 7", N80, 32 lbf/ft (47.62 kgf/m), BTR casing with the shoe
set at a depth of 5,750 m and a mud weight of 1.1 kgf/litre
- Nominal collapse resistance (without tensile load) = 8,610 psi (605 kgf/cm 2)
- Pipe body yield strength = 745,000 lbs force (338 t force)
- Buoyancy factor = 0.859
- Weight of casing in air = (5,750 x 47.62) x 1000 = 274 t force
- Weight of casing in mud = 274 x 0.859 = 235 t force
X = (weight of casing in mud)/(pipe body yield strength) = 235/338 = 0.695
From the curve in the next slide, if X = 0.695 then Y = 0.445;
considering also the tensile load, can be determined as follows:
the collapse resistance,
Collapse resistance under tensile load = Nominal Collapse ResIstance x 0.445 =

= 605 x 0.445 = 269 t force

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

04.politecnico Di Torino CASING PROGRAMME 2010

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CHAPTER

04. CASING PROGRAMME

04. CASING PROGRAMME

4.2. BASIC CRITERIA IN WELL PLANNING

4.3. CASING DESIGN SEQUENCE (3 steps)

04. CASING PROGRAMME

4.3.1. MUD DENSITY DETERMINATION

This means that in overpressured zones, the mud density must be

04. CASING PROGRAMME

4.3.1. MUD DENSITY DETERMINATION

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

This sequence of calculations will also define the number of casing

04. CASING PROGRAMME

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

To determine the immediately previous casing, a straight line is traced, which

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

SELECTION CRITERIA AND PROCEDURE

An example of calculation is shown here below.

04. CASING PROGRAMME

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

Total Depth: 5000 m

Overpressures Top: 2150 m

Pore Pressure Gradient at Total Depth: 2.00 kgf/cm2/10 m

Fracture Gradient at Total Depth: 2.15 kgf/cm2/10 m

Maximum Mud Density: 2.06 kg / litre at Total Depth

Pore Pressure Gradient and Fracture Gradient Development: as per slide 11

Mud Density: as per slide 11

04. CASING PROGRAMME

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

2.1 Production Casing or Liner

the production casing string will be run at

In case the well results dry, it will be plugged and abandoned.

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

2.50 kgf/cm 2/10 m

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

Theoretical Setting Depth

Effective Setting Depth

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

Theoretical Setting Depth

Effective Setting Depth

LAST BUT ONE

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

Effective Setting Depth

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

4.3.2. CASING SETTING DEPTH DETERMINATION

Effective Setting Depth

4.3.2 CASING SETTING DEPTH V A L I D A T I O N

4.3.3 CASING SETTING DEPTH V A L I D A T I O N

1. MAXIMUM PRESSURE ALLOWABLE AT THE CHOKE, Pch

at the CASING always means at the TOP of the

4.3.3.1. MAXIMUM PRESSURE ALLOWABLE AT THE CHOKE, Pch

Called also the Maximum Allowable ANNULAR Surface Pressure or

Pch = [(Gfr,shoe df,H) x Hshoe] / 10

4.3.3.1. MAXIMUM PRESSURE ALLOWABLE AT THE CHOKE, Pch

04. CASING PROGRAMME

4.3.3.2. MAXIMUM DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE, Pd

04. CASING PROGRAMME

4.3.3.2. MAXIMUM DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE, Pd

- pipe sticking (vs uncased hole wall)