Block A Unit 1 Outline

Concepts
> Charge & Current; Voltage; Resistance; Power

Terminology
> Branch, Mesh, Node

Laws
> Kirchhoffs current and voltage laws; Ohms law

Resistive networks
> Parallel and series; current and voltage divider rule

Measuring instruments (application)

> Ammeters and Voltmeters
Block A Unit 1

Electric Charge
Charge is a fundamental electric quantity, measured by the unit Coulomb
(C)
The smallest amount of charge that exists is the charge that is carried by 1
electron = -1.602 x 10-19 C
Therefore charge quantities in real life occur in integral multiples of an
electrons charge
Typically denoted by the symbol Q

Block A Unit 1

Current: Free electrons on the move

+

_
_

_
_

_
_

_
_

Direction of current
_

Conventional current flows from + to (Opposite direction to electron flow)

Block A Unit 1

Currents must run in loops

Current in relation to Charge

Currents arise from flow of charges
Unit: Ampere (A)
Typically denoted by the symbol, I
Current = Rate of change of charge
Mathematically, I = dQ/dt
3

Fundamental law for charge

Current has to flow in closed loop
No current flows if there is a break in the path
Underlying physical law: Charge cannot be created or
destroyed
This is the basis of Kirchhoffs Current Law

i2

i1

i3
Block A Unit 1

i4

Kirchhoffs current law

Sum of currents at a node must equal
to zero:
i1 + i 2 + i 3 + i4 = 0
4

Kirchhoffs current law

Does the direction of current matter?
I2 running into node
i1

YES!!

I2 running out of node

i1

Different

i2

i2
i3

i1 + i2 + i3 = 0
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i3

i1 + i2 + i3 = 0 (WRONG)
i1 + i3 = i2 (CORRECT)
5

Kirchhoffs current law

Sign convention when applying KCL

Currents EXITING (-ve),

Currents ENTERING (+ve)
i1

Entering: I1 & I2 (+ve)

i2

i4
i3
Block A Unit 1

Exiting: I3 & I4 (-ve)

i1 + i2 i3 i4 = 0

KCL example
Problem 2.14 and 2.15
Find the unknown current using KCL

6A - 5A + 2A - i = 0

6A - 5A + 2A + i = 0

i = 3A

i = -3A

Block A Unit 1

Voltage/Potential difference
Current

A
_

B
_

Unit: Volt (V)

vx = vA - vB

+
-

vx

High (+)
Energy is required to move charges between
2 points

Direction
of Flow

Voltage/potential difference is always made

with reference to 2 points

Low (-)
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Sign convention
In a LOAD

Voltage DROPS in the direction of the current

Energy is dissipated (or consumed)
+

In a SOURCE
Voltage RISES in the direction of the current
Energy is generated

Block A Unit 1

i
+
-

Fundamental law on voltage

Energy is required to push electrons through a resistive element

That same energy needs to be generated by a source
Total energy generated in a circuit must equal total energy consumed in the circuit
Energy cannot be created or destroyed
Therefore, voltage rise = voltage drop

- V3 +
Kirchhoffs voltage law

V2

V4

Net voltage around a closed

circuit is zero:

v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0

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+ V1 -

10

Kirchhoffs voltage law

load
source

load

Reference voltage in a circuit set to 0V

All other nodes on the circuit can then be conveniently
referenced to GROUND
DEFINING signs
Voltage gain (+ve)
Voltage drop (-ve)

+ V2 +
V1
-

v1 v2 + v3 = 0
+ V3 -

load

Ground symbol

GROUND
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11

KVL example
Problem 2.16
Apply KVL to find voltage V1 and V2

Loop 1 (Clock-wise):
5V - 3V - V2 = 0
V2 = 2V
Loop 2 (Anti-clock-wise):
V1 - 10V - V2 = 0
V1 = 12V

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12

Resistance and Ohms Law

+
v
_

Ideal RESISTOR shows linear

resistance obeying Ohms law
1/R

Unit: Ohm ()

When current flows through any circuit element, there will always be a
resistance to its flow which results in a voltage drop across that circuit
element

Ohms law: V = IR
IMPORTANT: Positive current is
defined here as flowing from higher
to lower voltage (Remember)

L
A

A
L

: resistivity (material
property)
A: cross-sectional area

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13

Ohms law + KCL example

Problem 2.17
Use Ohms law + KCL to find the current through the 15 resistor

KCL: I1 + I2 = 10A
Ohms: 15I1 = V15 (1); 30I2 = V30 (2)
(KVL) V15 = V30
Therefore, 2I2 = I1
Solving for the variables:
I2 = 3.33 A, I1 = 6.67 A
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14

Electrical Power
Electrical power generated/dissipated in a given element is defined by the
product of the voltage across that element and the current through it

Unit: Watt (W)

+

P = VI

0.2A

1.5V
_

1.5V
_

0.2A

P = I 2R

P = V2/R

Source: P = 1.5V x 0.2A = 0.3W

Load: P = 1.5V x 0.2A = 0.3W
Power generated by source
MUST EQUAL
Power dissipated in the load
Block A Unit 1

In a source, power is generated

In a load (eg. resistor), power is
dissipated/consumed
15

Power example
Problem 2.22
Determine which components are absorbing power and which are delivering power
Is conservation of power observed in this example?

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16

Power example solution

Finally calculate power through each element
A: (12V)(5A) = 60W [generating]
B: (3V)(5A) = 15W [generating]
C: (-5V)(5A) = -25W [absorbing]
D: (-10V)(3A) = -30W [absorbing]
E: (-10V)(2A) = -20W [absorbing]
Last part: Is power conserved?
Generating: 60W + 15W = 75W
Absorbing: 25W + 30W + 20W = 75W
YES!
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17

Terminology: Branch and Node

Branch

BRANCH: Any path of a circuit

with 2 TERMINALS connected to it

Node
NODE: Junction of
2 or more branches
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Terminology: Loop and Mesh

Vs

+
-

LOOP: Any closed connection of branches

In the above circuit, there are 6 loops in total

Vs

+
-

Mesh: Loop that does not contain other loops

In the above circuit, there are 3 meshes in total
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19

DC vs AC
DC Direct Current: Current is constant with time
AC Alternating Current: Current varies with time and
reverses direction periodically

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20

Independent Voltage Source

+

+
_

Circuit

i
_

Independent Voltage Source supplies a prescribed voltage across

its terminals irrespective of current flowing through it
Current supplied is determined by load circuit connected

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21

Independent Current Source

+

Circuit
i

v
_

Independent Current Source supplies a prescribed current to any

load circuit connected to it
Voltage supplied is determined by load circuit connected
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22

Dependent Sources
DEPENDENT source generates v or i that is a function of
some other v or i in the circuit
+
Symbol diamond shape outline
+

5V

vx
Independent

vs

+
_

Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS): vs = vx

Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS): vs = rix

Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS): is = gvx

Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS): is = ix

Block A Unit 1

is
23

Example of a VCVS
Ro

+
vi
-

Ri

+
-

Avi

Note: This is a general model for an amplifier

which shall be re-visited later in BLOCK C

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24

Short Circuit
A

0.1A

20
B

Short circuit: Connect 2 or more terminals so that

the voltage between each of them is the same
Typically associated with current, eg. short-circuit
current

Short circuit A & B

A

0.1A

20
B

Block A Unit 1

20 resistor is now bypassed

Current from source flows through the
short-circuit to give a short-circuit current

Isc

Short circuit current Isc = 0.1A

25

Open Circuit
A

0.1A

Open circuit: Leave 2 terminals

unconnected externally

20

Typically associated with voltage,

eg. open-circuit voltage

0.1A

20
B

Block A Unit 1

Ioc= 0A

Voc
-

Open circuit voltage

Voc = 0.1A 20 = 2V

26

Self-contradictory circuits
A

Prefixes: Memorize and apply them!

tera

1012

giga

109

mega

106

kilo

103

What is the voltage across A and B?

milli

10-3

micro

10-6

nano

10-9

pico

10-12

femto

10-15

vs

+
-

Is
B

Write as 2.15mA instead of 0.00215A

What is the current arriving at A?

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27

Parallel network (Highlights)

I1
Is

R1

I2

R2

IN

RN

Is

RP

Equivalent Resistance
1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + + 1/RN
Current divider rule

1 RN
IN
IS
1 RP
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28

Parallel Network: Proof

X I2

Apply Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) at X:

I1

Is = I2 + I1

R1

Is

R2
This can be seen as Is is split into the 2 branches

2 I2

3
Note that points 1, 2, 3 are all at the same voltage,
therefore same node (X)

I1
R1

Is
Y

Block A Unit 1

R2
6

Points 4, 5, 6 are all at the same voltage, therefore

same node (Y)
Voltage across R1 = Voltage across R2 = VXY
29

Parallel network: Proof

X

2 I2

Apply Ohms to both R1 and R2:

VXY = I1R1 = I2R2

I1
R1

Is
Y

R2
6

I1 = VXY/R1; I2 = VXY/R2
Adding I2 & I1 up according to KCL:
Is = VXY(1/R1 + 1/R2)

We can now find how much of Is is distributed between the 2 branches

1 R1
I s
I1
1 R1 1 R2

1 R2
I s
I 2
1 R1 1 R2

This is referred to as the current divider rule

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30

Parallel network: Proof

I2

Is = VXY(1/R1 + 1/R2)

I1
R1

Is

R2

Replace the parallel network of

resistors with a single equivalent
resistor

Remember that the voltage across RP is still VXY!

X

VXY/RP = VXY(1/R1 + 1/R2)

RP

Is

1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2

Y

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31

Parallel network (seeing it)

Current splits at one node
I1
Is

R1

I2

R2

IN

RN

Current re-combine at the other node

Suggestion: Think about parallel resistors as the rungs on a ladder

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32

Current divider: Example 1

V1
I
i1

R1

i2

V2

R2

Find i1 and i2 in terms of I

If R1 = R2, find the ratio between

i1 and i2

If R2 = 3R1, find the ratio between

i1 and i2

i1 = [R2 / (R1 + R2)]I; i2 = [R1 / (R1 + R2)]I

If R1 = R2, then i1 = i2 = I/2
If R2 = 3R1, then i1 = 3I/4, i2 = I/4
Therefore i1 = 3i2

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33

Current divider: Example 2

V1

I
i1

i2

i3

Find the current through each

resistor in terms of I
Find the current through each
resistor in terms of I if a 4th
resistor was added in parallel
How many resistor are required
to reduce the current in each
resistor to 1% of I (ie 1/100)

V2
i1 = i2 = i3 = I/3

Consider that, in = I/n

i1 = i2 = i3 = i4 = I/4

Hence n = 100 for in = 0.01I

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Current divider: Example 3

V1
I
i1

R1

i2

R2

i3

R3

V2
I3 > I5 > I1 > I4 > I2

Block A Unit 1

i4

R4

i5

R5

If R2 > R4 > R1 > R5 > R3

Which current is the largest?
Which current is the smallest?
Rank the currents from largest to
smallest
35

Series network (Highlights)

R1

Vs

+
-

R2

RN

V1

Vs

+
-

RS

V2

Equivalent Resistance

RS = R1 + R2 + + RN

VN

Voltage divider rule

VN = VS(RN/RS)
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36

Series network: Proof

Vs

+
Is

Apply Ohms law to both resistors:

V1 = ISR1; V2 = ISR2

R1

V1

R2

V2

Adding up V1 and V2 according to KVL:

Vs = IS(R1+R2)

We can now find how much of Vs is distributed between the 2 resistors

R1
Vs
V1
R1 R2

R2
Vs
V2
R1 R2

This is referred to as the voltage divider rule

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37

Series network: Proof

R1
Vs

+
-

R2

Vs = IS(R1+R2)
Replace the series network of resistors
with a single equivalent resistor
Remember that the current going into
RS is still IS!
IsRS = IS(R1+R2)

Vs

+
-

Block A Unit 1

RS

RS = R1+R2

38

Series network (seeing it)

Vs

+
-

R1

V1

R2

V2

+
-

RN

VN

Suggestion: Think about series resistors as the rings forming a chain

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39

Voltage Divider: Example 1

2V

5V
10

20

30

Node 1
Node 2
Find the voltage across each resistor
Find the voltage at nodes 1 and 2
Total resistance (in series) RT = 10 + 20 + 30 = 60
V10 = (1/6)(3) = 0.5V; V20 = (1/3)(3) = 1V; V30 = (1/2)(3) = 1.5V
At node 1:
V1 = 2 + 0.5 = 2.5V
At node 2:
V2 = 5 1.5 = 3.5V
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Voltage Divider: Example 2

0V

9V
R1

If R3=3R1 and R2 = 2R1

R2
Node 1

R3
Node 2

Find the voltage across each resistor

Find the voltage at nodes 1 and 2
VR1 = (R1/RT)(VB - VA) = 9/6 = 1.5V; VR2 = (R2/RT)(VB - VA) = 9/3 = 3V
VR3 = (R3/RT)(VB - VA) = 9/2 = 4.5V
At node 1: V1 = VR1 + VA = VB/6
At node 2: V1 = VB - VR3 = VB/2
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Voltage Divider: Example 3

VA

+ V1 -

+ V2 -

+ V3 -

+ V4 -

+ V5 -

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

VB

If R2 > R4 > R1 > R5 > R3

Which voltage difference is the largest?

Which voltage difference is the smallest?

Rank the voltage differences from largest to smallest

V2 > V4 > V1 > V5 > V3

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42

Series-Parallel combo: Example 1

Find the total resistance as seen across A and B
A

All resistors have value of 1

A

RAB = (R1 || R2) + (R3 || R4)

R1

R2

R3

R1

R2

R3

R4

R4

= 1||1 + 1||1 = 1

RAB = (R1 + R3) || (R2 + R4)

= 2||2 = 1

B
B
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Combo example 2
Problem 2.48
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source
How much power is delivered by the source?
Combine the 1 and 2 in series: R1 = 3
Combine the R1 with 3 in parallel: R2 =
1.5
Combine the R2 with 4 & 5 in series: R3
= 10.5
Combine the R3 with 6 in parallel: R4 =
3.818
Combine the R4 with 7 in series: RT =
10.818

Block A Unit 1

Power delivered by source: P = VS2/RT =

18.1W

44

Combo example 2

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Block A Unit 1

45

Combo example 3
Problem 2.48
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source
Find the current through the 90 resistor

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46

Combo example 3

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47

Power dissipation
Power: P = V I

Power dissipated in resistor R

P = I2R = V2/R

+V -

Power dissipated: P = v22 / R2

R2
2
P
V
2 s
( R1 R2 )

R1
+
-

Vs

R2

v2
_

For Max Power Transfer:

R1 = R2

Find condition for dP/dR2 = 0 (max pt)

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48

Practical voltage source

Motivation: The ideal source does not consider internal resistance of sources so we
need to modify ideal model to describe the physical limitations in practical sources:
Ideal voltage source in series with a source resistance

Rs
Vs +-

RL
Ideal

Vs +-

RL
Practical

Terminal voltage becomes:

VRL = [RL/(RL+RS)]VS instead of VS
VRL is now lower due to some voltage drop across RS
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Practical current source

Motivation: The ideal source does not consider internal resistance of sources so we
need to modify ideal model to describe the physical limitations in practical sources:
Ideal current source in parallel with a source resistance

Is

RL
Ideal

Is

Rs

RL

Practical

Current through the load now becomes:

IRL = [Rs/(RL+RS)]IS instead of IS
IRL is now lower due to a fraction of the source current
flowing into RS
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50

Voltmeter
Voltmeter measures voltage across a circuit element
Connected in parallel with the element being measured

R1
+
_

vs

R1
R2

IDEAL

+
_

vs

R2

RV

ACTUAL

Voltmeter should draw as little current away R2 in the

main circuit (application of current divider rule)

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51

Voltmeter Example
i

vs

+
_

im
R1
R2

RV

If R1 = R2 = 1k, and RV = 1M
Find VL without the voltmeter connected across R2
Find VL with the voltmeter connected across R2
What happens when R1 and R2 are now 500k?
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52

Voltmeter example solution

Without voltmeter:
VL = 0.5VS
With voltmeter (When R2 = 1k):
Substitute R2 with R2 || RV = 1k || 1M = 999
VL = 0.4997VS
With voltmeter (When R2 = 500k):
Substitute R2 with R2 || RV = 0.5M || 1M = 333k
VL = 0.4VS
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53

Ammeter
Ammeter measures current flowing through an element
Connected in series with the element being measured

vs

+
_

R1

vs

R1

+
_

A
IDEAL

i
RA

ACTUAL

RA should contribute as little as possible to the overall series

resistance in the circuit (application of voltage divider rule)

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54

Ammeter Example
i

Vs

R1

+
_

Vs = 5V, RA = 0.5
RA

For R1 = 500 and then 2.5 ,

Find i without and with the ammeter included
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55

Ammeter Example solution

Without ammeter:
I = VS/R1 = 10 mA
With ammeter:
When R1 = 500 (RA << R1),
I = VS/(R1 + RA) = 9.99 mA
When RA = 0.5 and R1 = 2.5 (RA < R1)
I = VS/(R1 + RA) = 1.67 A

This slide is meant to be blank

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