UNIT II

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTS

ANALOG INSTRUMENTS

GIVING SENSE TO ANALOG INSTRUMENTS

A measuring instrument in which the output is a continuous function of time

and should maintain constant relationship with the input.

Its not widely used now but still it cannot be replaced by other type of
measuring instruments (like digital measuring instruments) in some
applications like ammeters, voltmeters in laboratories.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANALOG INSTRUMENTS

Classified as

Indicating Instruments

Recording Instruments

Integrating Instruments

Indicating Instruments:

These are which indicate the magnitude of a quantity being measured by using a dial and
poiner arrangement

Examples: ordinary Ammeters and Voltmeters in labs.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANALOG INSTRUMENTS (CONTD.,)

Recording Instruments:

These instruments give a continuous record of the quantity being measured over a
period using a pen attached to moving system.

Example: Reading Voltmeters in a substation (An out-dated method for storing voltage
for a period of time. Now using SCADA computers)

Integrating Instruments:

These instruments totalize the events over a period i.e., the output of such
instruments are the product of time and electrical quantity.

Example: An household Energy meter which gives the power consumed in a interval of
time.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF ANALOG

INSTRUMENTS

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Magnetic effect

Heating effect

Electrostatic effect

Electromagnetic effect

Hall effect

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
(CONTD.,)

Magnetic effect:

The effect due to the current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.

Used in: PMMC, moving iron attraction and repulsion type.

Heating/ Thermal effect:

Current to be measured is made to pass through a element which gets heated and
this rise in temperature is measured by a thermocouple.

Thermocouple is basically a transducer which converts heat energy to its proportional

electrical energy.

Used in: temperature measurements in boilers.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION (CONTD.,)

Electrostatic effect:

When two plates are charged, there is a force exerted b/w them which moves one
of the plates.

Used in: Electrostatic Voltmeters

Electromagnetic effect:

When an non-magnetic disc is placed in an alternating electrical field, an emf is

induced in the disc, which causes flow of current.

The force produced by this induced current and the alternating field moves disc.

Used in: household Energy meters (now using digital energy meters )

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION (CONTD.,)

Hall effect:

If a strip of conducting material is placed in a

transverse magnetic field, an emf is induced b/w
two edges of the conductor which can be
measured after amplification.

The magnitude of this emf depends on the

amount of current flowing through the strip, flux
density and this effect is called Hall effect.

Used in: flux meter(magnetic measurements)

OPERATING FORCES OF INDICATING

MEASUREMENTS

OPERATING FORCES

Types of operating forces for satisfactory operation of

indicating meters are :

Deflecting force

Controlling force and

Damping force

OPERATING FORCES (CONTD.,)

Deflecting force:

Its the force required for moving the pointer from zero position.

The system producing deflecting force is called deflecting system which converts
electric current into mechanical force which deflects the point by any of the
operating principles(i.e., Hall effect, thermal effect, etc.,) as discussed earlier.

Controlling force:

Opposing force to the deflecting force produced by the system is called controlling
force:

Main functions:

To produce equal and opposite force to deflecting force in order to make deflection of
definite magnitude.

To bring back pointer to zero position after deflecting force is removed.

OPERATING FORCES (CONTD.,)

Damping force:

Deflecting and controlling force produced by the systems which have inertia
which doesnt allow system to settle in short period of time.

So, in order to bring the system to rest during short span, there is a damping
system which provides necessary damping force.

ANALOG AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS

Except electrostatic type of instruments all other types of instruments work

on the operating principle of the deflecting torque is produced by electric
current.

In ammeters, deflecting torque is produced by the current to be measured.

In voltmeters, deflecting torque is produced by the current proportional to the

voltage to be measured.

Hence, ammeters and voltmeters all current measuring devices.

Ammeters with low electrical resistance are connected in series with the
circuit.

Voltmeters with high electrical resistance are connected in parallel with the
circuit.

TYPES OF ANALOG INSTRUMENTS

Types of analog ammeters and voltmeters are:

Permanent magnet moving coil instrument (PMMC)

Moving iron type instrument

Electro dynamometer type instrument

Hot wire type instrument

Thermocouple type instrument

Induction type instrument

Electrostatic type instrument

Rectifier type instrument

PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

(PMMC)

Out of 8 types PMMC can be used only for D.C. measurements only.

It gives accurate reading in D.C.

PRINCIPLE

Motoring principle- current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences

a force.

As coil in the instrument is moving and the magnet is a permanent magnet, its called
as permanent magnet moving coil instrument.

Amount of force experienced by the coil is proportional to the current passint through
the coil.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

The circular or rectangular coil is placed in uniform

field of permanent magnet.

The iron core is if coil is circular and its cylindrical if

the coil is rectangular due to which the deflecting
torque is produced.

Controlling torque is produced by the spring control

method

Damping torque is provided by the method of eddy

current.

Pointer of light weight is connected to the spindle

which mover on a graduated scale. Mirror placed
below the pointer eradicates the parallax error.

Total weight of PMMC is balanced by a balancing

weight.

TORQUE EQUATION

TORQUE EQUATION(CONTD.,)

From above equation we can infer that the deflection of pointer is proportional
to the current

ERRORS IN PMMC INSTRUMENTS

o Weakening of permanent magnets due to ageing and temperature effects.
o Weakening of springs due to ageing
o Change of resistance of coil

ADVANTAGES

Low power consumption

High sensitivity

Free from hysteresis error

Effective damping

Not affected by external magnetic

fields

High accuracy

DISADVANTAGES

It can be used only for D.C.

measurements

Cost is high

MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

Advantages are : low cost, high accuracy, ruggedness

Classification are:

MOVING IRON ATTRACTION TYPE INSTRUMENTS,

MOVING IRON REPULSION TYPE INSTRUMENTS

MOVING IRON ATTRACTION TYPE INSTRUMENTS

It has a flat coil and a narrow slot like

opening while moving iron is eccentrically
mounted

Current to be measured flows through the

coil, causes magnetic field which attracts
moving coil, thus making pointer to move

Springs produce necessary controlling

torque

Air friction damping is provided with light Al

piston attached to it.

MOVING IRON REPULSION TYPE INSTRUMENTS

This type consists of two vanes:

Fixed

Movable

Current to be measured flows in both vanes, so there is a production of repulsion

force which moves the pointer.

Different designs are:

Radial vane type

Coaxial vane type.

RADIAL VANE TYPE

Two vanes here are two radial strips of iron

which are placed with in the coil.

Fixed vane is attached to the coil

Movable vane is attached to the spindle of the

instrument which in turn is attached to the
pointer

COAXIAL VANE TYPE

Here, both vanes are sections of coaxial

cylinder

Control torque is produced by springs and air

friction damping is used

Eddy current damping cannot be used in

moving iron instruments as it would distort
magnetic field.

Moving iron type can be used to measure both

ac and dc because, irrespective of the direction
of the current, iron vanes can be magnetised.

TORQUE EQUATION

TORQUE EQUATION (CONTD.,)

TORQUE EQUATION (CONTD.,)

TORQUE EQUATION (CONTD.,)

ERRORS IN MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

HYSTERESIS ERROR

This is due to difference in the value of flux density for same current for ascending
and descending values.

This can be minimised by making iron parts smaller so that hey demagnetise quickly

TEMPERATURE ERROR

Its due to effect of temperature on the temperature co-efficient of spring and due to
heating of coils

This can be minimised by using manganin as a material for series resistance.

STRAY MAGNETIC FIELDS

Since operating field of this type of instrument is very low, its easily disturbed by
external fields

ERRORS IN MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

FREQUENCY ERROR

It occurs only in ac. Change in reactance cause change in frequency.

EDDY CURRENT ERROR

It also occurs only in ac.

Due to the production of eddy current which causes deflection.

For this reason the moving iron type instruments is not used above 125Hz