CHAPTER6

SurveyingFundamentals

Surveying

Theprocessusedtoobtaininformationabout
naturalandhumanmadefeatures.
Thelocationandelevationofasinglepointon
theground,andtheangularandheight
relationshipsbetweenpoints.

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TheShapeandSizeoftheEarth

Shape:theearthisanoblatespheroidasphere
flattenedattheends(poles).
Size:

Equatorialdiameter=7928mi(12,756km)
Equatorialcircumference=24,907mi(40,075km)
Lengthof1degreeoflongitudeatequator=69.186mi
Polardiameter=7901mi(12,713km)
Polarcircumference=24,822mi(39,938km)
Lengthof1degreeoflatitude68.95mi

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TheShapeandSizeoftheEarth

Thediameteroftheearthmeasuredthroughthe
polesisapproximately27mileslessthanthe
diametermeasuredattheequator.

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TypesofSurveys

Plane
LandorBoundary
Topographic
Geodetic
Photogrammetric
Route
Construction

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PlaneSurveys

Planeflatsurface.
Surveyingconductedasiftheearthssurface
wereflat.

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PlaneSurveys

Ahorizontalplaneisonly0.66ftabovethe
earthssurfaceattheendofa1milearc.

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LandorBoundarySurveys

Platmapofaspecificplot(piece)ofland,or
property.
Surveyingpropertycornersandboundarylines.
Closedtraversethesurveyalwaysreturnsto
thepointofbeginning(POB)oranothercontrol
point.

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LandorBoundarySurveys

Platexample:

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TopographicSurvey

Locateelevationsandlandfeatures.
Usedtogenerateatopographicmap.

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TopographicSurvey

Topographicmap
example:

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GeodeticSurvey

Largeareasaremappedbyaprocesscalled
triangulation.
Definemajorcontrolpointsthatcanbeusedfor
smallersurveys.

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GeodeticSurvey

Triangulationdiagramexample:

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PhotogrammetricSurvey

Informationfromaerialphotoscanbeusedtogenerate
photogrammetric,topographicanddigitalmaps.
Aerialphotosaretakenatvariousaltitudes.

Smallscalephotosareusedforprojectplanoverviewand
preliminarystudies.
Largerscalephotosareusedforpreliminarystudies,map
design,andGISapplication.
Largescalephotosareusedforengineeringanddeignwork.

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PhotogrammetricSurvey

Smallscalephoto
(scale:1=1700):

Largerscalephoto
(scale:1=850):

Largescalephoto
(scale:1=170):

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PhotogrammetricSurvey

Measurementsaretakenon
thephotobasedonknown
grounddistances.
Differencesinelevationcan
bedetectedusinga
traditionalstereoscopeor
specialized3Dstereoscopic
mappingworkstationsand
eyewear.

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PhotogrammetricSurvey

GlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)
AerotriangulationusingaerialphotographyandGPS
forphotogrammetricsurvey.

Takingaerialphotosatvariousaltitudes.
Photosarelinkedtoaccuratelocationdatausingcamera
mountedangroundbasedGPSreceivers.
Softwareisusedtointerpretdata.
Knowngrounddistancesarestillneeded,butfewerare
required.

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RouteSurvey

Surveyingforalinearfeaturesuchasaroad,
pipeline,orpowerlines,NOTaplotofland.
Opentraversethesurveydoesnotreturnto
thepointofbeginning(doesnotcloseon
itself).

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RouteSurvey

Example:

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ConstructionSurvey

Localizedtakeplaceataconstructionsite.
Usedtoidentifythelocationandelevationof
excavations,fills,foundations,floorsandother
constructionfeatures.

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ConstructionSurvey

Example:

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AngularMeasurements

Azimuthsanglesmeasuredinafullcirclefrom0
degreesto360degrees.

Typicallyclockwisefromnorth.
Example:N2451422=2451422measuredclockwise
fromnorth.

Bearinganglesmeasuredin90degreequadrants.

Degrees,minutes,andseconds.
Example:N552536E=552536measuredfromnorth
towardstheeastintheNEquadrant.

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Traversing

Aseriesofcontinuouslinesconnectingpoints
calledtraversestationsorstationpoints.
Thelengthofeachlineismeasured.
Theanglebetweeneachlineismeasured.

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Traversing

Open
Connecting
Closed
CompassBearing
DirectorInteriorAngle
DeflectionAngle
AnglestotheRight
Azimuth

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OpenTraverse

Seriesoflinesthatdonotreturntoapointof
beginning(POB).
Maynotstartorendatacontrolpoint.
Usedonlyforroutesurvey.
Lowaccuracy(distanceandanglescannotbe
checked).

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ConnectingTraverse

Beginsandendsat
knownpoints,suchas
benchmarks(BM).
Accurate(distanceand
anglescanbechecked).
Opentraverseusing
knownpoints

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ClosedTraverse

Usedforlandandconstructionsurveys.
Accurate(distanceandanglescanbechecked).

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ClosedTraverse

Looptraverseseriesoflinesthatreturntoa
pointofbeginning(POB).

Connectingtraversebeginsandendsat
knownpoints.

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CompassBearingTraverse

Typicallyusedinconnectingtraverses.
Identifytheangleoflinesusingbearings.
Historicallydoneusingacompass.
TodaydoneusinganEDM,likethetotal
stationwhichmeasuresverticalandhorizontal
angles,anddistanceelectronically.

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DirectorInteriorAngleTraverse

Measurestheinterioranglesoftheplot.
Usedforclosedtraverses.
Thesumoftheinterioranglesshouldalways
equal(n2)180.

nisthenumberofsidesinthepolygon.

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DeflectionAngleTraverse

Measuringanangleinreferencetoastraight
linefromleftorright.
Straightline=180degrees
Usedinroutesurveys.

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DeflectionAngleTraverse

Theanglefromaprolongationofaline,toanew
line.Nottheanglebetweentwolines.
Theangleisalways180orless,andisfollowed
bytheletterRorL.

R=Anglestotherightoftheline.
L=Anglestotheleftoftheline.

Canbecheckedbyplungingtheinstrumentto
measuretheoppositeangle.

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AnglestotheRight

Measuringinteriororexterioranglesbetweentwo
lines.
Interiorangles:

Measuredcounterclockwise.
Thesumoftheinteriorangles=(n2)180,wherenis
thenumberoftraversesides.

Exteriorangles:

Measuredclockwise.
Thesumoftheexteriorangles=(n+2)180,wherenis
thenumberoftraversesides.

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AnglestotheRight

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AzimuthTraverse

Identifytheangleoflinesusingazimuths.
TypicallymeasuredinreferencetotheNorth/South
Axis
Canbeconvertedtobearingtraverse.

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ElectronicTraverse

Traversingusing
CADD.
Abilitytogenerate
traverselinesusing
CADDsoftwareand
existinggrids(shown),
photos,andsurvey
points.

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GlobalNavigationSatelliteSystems
(GNSS)

Generictermforanysystemofsatellitesthat
provideglobalcoverageforgeographical
positioning.
GlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)usedinthe
UnitedStates.

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GNSS/GPS

Satellitestransmitradiosignalstoearth.
Surveyorreceivestheradiosignalsusinga
GNSS/GPSreceiver.

Signalsfromthreesatellitesprovidelongitudeand
latitudelocations.
Signalsfromfoursatellitesalsoprovideelevation.

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RawDataandCoordinateData

Rawdatainformationcollectedduringthe
survey.Traditionallyrecordedbyhand,now
createdasarawdatafileinthesurvey
instrument.
Coordinatedatapoints,orshotstaken
duringthesurvey.

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RawDataandCoordinateData

Examplerawdatafile:

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RawDataandCoordinateData

Examplecoordinate(text)file:

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RawDataandCoordinateData

Acoordinatetextfilecanbeimportedintoa
civilengineeringsoftwarepackage,whereitis
convertedintoadigitalterrainmodel(DTM).
TheDTMcannowbeusedtogenerateawide
varietyofdrawings,views,andshaded
renderings.

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Chapter6Activities

Chapter6Test
Chapter6Problems

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