EECS 4390/5390

Wireless and Mobile Networks

Fall 2014
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
The University of Toledo

Instructor: Junghwan Kim

EECS 4390/5390

3. Mobile Radio Propagation

3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.7.
3.8.
3.9.

Introduction
Types of Waves
Propagation Mechanisms
Free Space Propagation
Land Propagation
Path Loss
Fading
Characteristics of Instantaneous Amplitude
Other Characteristics
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3.1 Introduction

Wireless communication is based on the principle of broadcast and

reception of electromagnetic(EM) waves
Frequency: A number of times a signal goes through a complete up and
down cycle
one second,
measures
Example: Human
voiceinfrequency
: 2,000
Hz in Hertz or Hz
System

Frequency

AC current

60 Hz

Human voice

2 KHz =2,000 Hz

AM radio

530 KHz

FM radio

100 MHz=100, 000 KHz

Cellular

824 MHz

PCS phones

1.85 GHz=1,850 MHz

Wireless LAN

2.4 GHz

Visible light

500, 000 GHz

All frequencies are registered by international frequency registration board (IFRB)

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 Wavelength : - The distance of a complete cycle

- The distance the wave travels during one full cycle of the oscillation
Example: The wavelength of the light =5000 km
Example: The speed (v or c) = the wavelength () * frequency (f)
The speed of the AC current =300,000km/s =Light speed
System

Frequency

Wavelength

Speed

AC current

60 Hz

5,000 km

300,000 km/s

FM radio

100 MHz=100, 000 KHz

3m

300,000 km/s

Cellular

Around 824 MHz

37.5 cm

300,000 km/s

Visible light

Around 500, 000 GHz

0.7um ~ 0.4um

300,000 km/s

* Low frequencies have long wavelengths

* High frequencies have short wavelengths
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- Some frequency range definition

Term

Frequency Range

RF frequency

< 1 G Hz

-wave frequency

1 GHz ~ 40 GHz

Millimeter (mm) wave frequency

> 40 GHz

- Some frequency band definition (also Ka included)

Band

Frequency (GHz)

Wavelength

Main Use

L-Band

0.4 ~ 1.5 GHz

193~769 um

Broadcasting

S-Band

1.5 ~ 5.2 GHz

57.7~193 um

Cellular

C-Band

3.9 ~ 6.2 GHz

48.4~76.9 um

Satellite (old)

X-Band

5.2 ~ 10.9 GHz

27.5~57.7um

Fixed wireless

Ku-Band

10.9 ~ 36 GHz

8.34 ~ 27.5 um

Fixed-W, Satellite

Q-Band

36 ~ 46 GHz

6.52~8.34 um

Fixed wireless

V-Band

46 ~ 56 GHz

5.36~6.52um

Future satellite

W-Band

56 ~ 100 GHz

3.00~5.36 um

Future cellular

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 Gain and Loss

If the signal coming out from a device is bigger than the signal going in the
device, the device exhibits gain
* If the device exhibits gain, it is called an Amplifier (Active)

EECS 4390/5390

If the signal coming out from a device is smaller than the signal going in the
device, the device exhibits Loss
* Any signal which passes through a device exhibiting loss is said to
experience Attenuation

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- The results of multiple gain stages (multiple antennae & amps)

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 Decibels (dB): 10 log10 Power out

Power in

is measured in dB

- Examples:
(1) If the signal coming out of an amplifier is 100 times bigger than the
signal going in, the amplifier has a gain of 100, or has a gain of 20 dB
(2) +10 dB means 10 times bigger; +3 dB means 2 times bigger
(3) -10 dB means 10 times smaller; -3 dB means 2 times smaller
(4) If a signal experiences a gain of 4000, what is the gain in
dB?
(5) If a signal experiences a gain of 5000, what is the gain in dB?

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3.2 Types of waves

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Wave frequency
Classification

Initials

Frequency Range

Wavelength

Characteristics

Extremely low

ELF

<300 Hz

10000~1000km

Powerline

Infra low

ILF

300 ~ 3 kHz

>100 km

Telephone

Very low

VLF

3 ~ 30 kHz

100~10 km

Marine
Communication

Low

LF

30 ~ 300 kHz

10 ~1 km

Surface wave (AM)

Medium

MF

300 ~ 3000 kHz

1~0.1km

Ground wave (AM)

High

HF

3 ~ 30 MHz

100~10m

Sky wave (AM)

Very high

VHF

30 ~ 300 MHz

10 ~ 1 m

Space wave (FM)

Ultra high

UHF

300~ 3000 MHz

100~10cm

Space wave (C-phone)

Super high

SHF

3 ~ 30 GHz

10~1cm

Space wave (fixed

wireless)

Extremely high

EHF

30 ~ 300 GHz

10~1mm

Satellite wave (radar)

Tremendously high THF

300 ~ 300,000 GHz

1mm ~ 0.7 um

Satellite wave

Visible light

Around 500,000 GHz

0.7~04 um

Optical communication

Ultraviolet light

>1,000,000 GHz

0.4~0.000 01 um

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3.3 Propagation Mechanisms

A direct path (Line of Sight: LOS) between two antennae

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 Reflection: Propagating wave impinges on an object that is larger as

compared to the wavelength of the signal

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 Scattering: Propagating wave impinges on an object that is smaller as

compared to the wavelength of the signal

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 Diffraction: Radio wave between a transmitter and a receiver is

obstructed by a surface with sharp irregular edges

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 Example:

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 Propagation Loss: Mainly due to Attenuation and Fading effects

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- Attenuation: A decrease in magnitude of current, voltage, electrical or

optical power of a signal in transmission between points
* Free space propagation (Free Space Loss)

- Fading refers to the fluctuations in signal strength when received at the receiver
* Fast fading: The power fluctuates more rapidly around a mean
value and these fluctuations have a somewhat short period, by
zooming in to a distance of a few hundred meters
* Short-time fading, Small-scale fading, Rayleigh fading
* Slow fading: The power fluctuates around a mean value and these fluctuations
have a somewhat long period, by zooming in to a distance of a few miles
** Long-time fading, Large-scale fading, Lognormal fading
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3.4 Free Space Propagation

Attenuation:

- A decrease in magnitude of current, voltage, electrical or optical

power of a signal in transmission between points
- The decrease in intensity of a signal, beam, or wave as a result of
absorption of energy and of scattering out of the path to the detector,

Free space propagation

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The received signal power

AeGt Pt
4d 2
where Pt is the transmitting power, Ae is the effective area
Pr

Gt is the transmitting antenna gain. Assuming that the radiated power

is uniformly distributed over the surface of the sphere.

The received antenna gain

4Ae
Gr 2

where is the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave

AeGt Pt Gr Gt Pt 2
Pr

2
4 d
(4 d ) 2
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Example: The BS antenna is transmitting a power of 1W. The transmitter antenna

gain is unity while the receiver gain is 2. Find the received power in dBm at a
distance of 5 km from the transmitter operating at 900 MHz in free space.
Note: dBm=10log10(P/mW)

Solution:
Pt 1W 1000mW

Gt 1

d 5km 5000m

speed of light 3 10 8 m 1

m
fc
9 10 8 Hz 3

Gr Gt Pt 2
Pr
(4 d ) 2

Gr 2

2 1 1000 / 3 2

5.6 10 8 mW
2
(4 5000)

Pr (dBm) 10 log10 Pr (mW ) 72.5

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3.5 Land Propagation

The received signal power:

Gt Gr Pt
Pr
L
where Gr is the receiver antenna gain,
L is the propagation loss from the channel, i.e.,
L = LP LS LF
Fast fading
Slow fading
Path loss

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3.6 Path Loss

Free space path loss: the attenuation undergone by an EM wave in

transit between a Txer and a Rxer.

power of the transmitted signal

Pt
Lf

power of the same signal received Pr

Pt
1
4 d
Lf

Pr Gr Gt
2

4 d fc

if Gr Gt 1

where c 3 10 5 (km) is the free - space velocity of the electromaganetic

wave (speed of light) and f c (MHz) is the carrier frequency
4 d

L f (dB ) 10 log10 L f
4
20 log10 d 20 log10 f c
c
32.45 20 log10 d 20 log10 f c
20 log10

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Non-Line-of-Sight (BLOS or NLOS)

- The signal reaches receiver through reflection and diffraction
since there is no LOS path

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- The signal also can reaches receiver through reflection, scattering

as well as via a direct path

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- The most general case of signal reception, consists of a direct

path(LOS), a reflected path, a scattered path, and a diffracted
path

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Land Propagation Path Loss

- A simplest formula for path loss

LP Ad v

where v (or ) is called loss factor or loss exponent and has a

minimum value of 2 in free space and takes a value larger than 2
when free-space propagation condition do not exist
* the higher values of v correspond to city and urban
* the lower values of v correspond to suburban or rural areas

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Hata Model (Empirical model after Okumuras model)

A model to predict the median signal loss in different geographical regions

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 In urban area

LPU (dB ) 69.55 26.16 log10 ( f c ) 13.82 log10 (hb ) (hm )

44.9 - 6.55log10 (hb ) log10 (d )

where
fc :

Carrier frequency (150 to 1500 MHz)

d:

Separation between base station and mobile unit (1 to 20 km)

hb :

Height of the base station antenna (30 to 200 m)

hm :

Height of the mobile unit antenna (1 to 10 m)

(hm ) : Correction factor for mobile unit antenna height

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* Medium and small city

8.29[log10 (1.54hm )]2 1.1,

(hm )

2
3.2[log
(
11
.
75
h
)]
4.97,
10
m

if

f c 300 MHz;

if

f c 300 MHz.

LPU (dB ) 69.55 26.16 log10 ( f c ) 13.82 log10 (hb )

44.9 - 6.55log10 (hb ) log10 (d )

- 1.1 log10 ( f c ) 0.7 hm 1.56 log10 ( f c ) 0.8

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LPU (dB ) 69.55 26.16 log10 ( f c ) 13.82 log10 (hb ) (hm )

44.9 - 6.55log10 (hb ) log10 (d )

* Large city
(hm ) [1.1 log10 ( f c ) 0.7]hm [1.56 log10 ( f c ) 0.8]

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- In suburban area
fc

LPS ( dB ) LPU 2 log10

5.4
28

where LPU is the pass loss in small - to - medium cities

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- In rural area
LPS (dB) LPU 4.78 log10 f c 18.33 log10 f c 40.94
2

where LPU is also the pass loss in small - to - medium cities

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- Extension of Hata model to PCS ( later Eglis model)

LPU (dB ) 46.3 33.93 log10 ( f c ) 13.82 log10 (hb ) (hm )
44.9 - 6.55log10 (hb ) log10 (d ) Corr

where Corr is the additional correction factor given by

0dB for medium city and suburban area
3dB for metropolitan areas

Corr
fc :

Carrier frequency (1500 to 2000 MHz)

d:
hb :

Separation between base station and mobile unit (1 to 20 km)

Height of the base station antenna (30 to 200 m)

hm :

Height of the mobile unit antenna (1 to 10 m)

(hm ) : Correction factor for mobile unit antenna height

- Remark: (1) Hata model is applicable only for distance beyond 1 km.
(2) It is unsuitable for loss calculations in micro-cells and pico-cells,
where the distances vary from a few meters to a kilometers
(3) Some different models have been proposed to predict path loss over
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4390/5390
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very short distances (Har
Ikeg 1991, Harl 1989, Walf 1988)

3.7. Fading

Fading refers to the fluctuations in signal strength when received at the

receiver
* Fast fading: The power fluctuates more rapidly around a mean value
and these fluctuations have a somewhat short period, by zooming in to
a distance of a few hundred meters
* Short-time fading, Small-scale fading, Rayleigh fading
* Slow fading: The power fluctuates around a mean value and these fluctuations
have a somewhat long period, by zooming in to a distance of a few miles
** Long-time fading, Large-scale fading, Lognormal fading

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Slow fading is caused by movement over distances large enough

to produce gross variations in the overall path between transmitter
and receiver.

The long-term variation in the mean level is known as slow fading

(shadowing or log-normal fading). This fading caused by
shadowingAmplitude follows Log-Normal pdf.

Shadowing: Often there are millions of tiny obstructions in the

channel, such as water droplets if it is raining or the individual
leaves of trees. Because it is too cumbersome to take into account
all the obstructions in the channel, these effects are typically
lumped together into a random power loss.

The signal from the transmitter may be reflected from objects

such as hills, buildings, or vehicles. Fast fading is due to
scattering of the signal by object near transmitter.
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3.7.1. Multipath Fading (Mostly small-scale fading)

Received signal is :
N

er a 0 a n e
n 1

j n

n 1

n 1

a 0 a n cos n j a n sin n X jY
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 Review of some other related results in Chapter 2

Normal ( or Gaussian ) distribution : pdf is
f ( x)

(x - ) 2
2 2

for x 0

2
where EX is the mean and 2 E ( X ) 2

is the variance

* X ~ N ( , 2 )
* Standard normal distribution : X ~ N (0,1).

Let X 1 , X 2 , be a sequence of iid random variables with

finite mean and finite variance 2 , and
Sn X 1 X 2 X n
for n 1,2,3,
then (Central limit theorem) :
x2
2

S n

1
lim P n
z
e dx

n
2
n

S n n
*
~ N (0,1) or S n ~ N (n , n 2 ) as n
n
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 Let X ~ N (0, 2 ) and Y ~ N (0, 2 ) be independent, then

(1) R X 2 Y 2 is said to be Rayleigh distributed and the pdf
r2

r - 2
f ( r ) 2 e 2
for r 0

Y
(2) V Tan -1 is a uniformal distribution over (0,2 ).
X

Let X ~ N ( 1 , 2 ) and Y ~ N ( 2 , 2 ) be independent, then

R X 2 Y 2 is said to be Ricean distributed and the pdf
f (r )

r
e
2

r 2 s2
2 2

1 rs
I0

2 2

for r 0

where s 12 22 , I 0 (x) is the zero order modified

Bessel function of the first kind and is given by
2

1
-x cos
I 0 ( x)
e
d
2 0

for x 0
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- Papo (1991) assumption:

If the locations of the structures are completely random, the pahses
n are safely assumed as uniformaly distrubuted in the range (0, 2 )

EX a 0 , EY 0,

Var( X ) Var( Y )

1 N 2
an
2 n 0

From central limit theorem, X ~ N (a 0 , 2 ) and Y ~ N (0, 2 )

From definition of X and Y , cov[ X, Y ] E[( X EX ) (Y EY )] 0
Since both X and Y are normal r.v.s, X and Y are then independent

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3.7.2 Rayleigh Fading: Due to multiple diffuse components

(say, Rxer is far from Txer)
Assumption : No direct path exists between the transmitting and
receiving antennae (a 0 0)

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 EX EY 0, Var(X) Var(Y) 2

From central limit theorem, X ~ N(0, 2 ) and Y ~ N(0, 2 )

From definition of X and Y , X and Y are also independent

The envelope of the received signal

A X 2 Y2
is Rayleigh distrubuted and the pdf is given by
f (r )

r
e
2

r2
2 2

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r0

46


* EA
,
2

and
EA
1.91 ,
A

Var ( A) 2
2

2
A

Unique property of the Rayleigh distribution

* The second moment (mean square value) is EA 2 2 2

The root mean square (rms ) value :

* The probability distribution : P( A x) 1 e

x2
2 2

* The mean value rm of the envelope signal :

P ( A rm ) 0.5

rm 1.774
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- Rayleigh-faded signal and its power for 11 multipaths

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* The Power of the received signal P A 2 , has an exponential

distruibution, given by
f P (r )

1
e
2
2

r
2 2

r0

Average Power 2 2

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* Outage probability pout : The possibility that power of the

received signal goes below a specified threshold value pthr
pthr

pout P ( A pthr ) 0
2

pthr

f P ( r )dr 0

1
pthr

e
dr

exp

2
2 2
2

** Example 1: Consider the case of a Rayleigh-fading channel. If the average

power being received is 100 mW, what is the probability that the received
power will be less than 50 mW?
Answer: The outage probability is: 1-exp(-50/100)=0.3935

** Example 2: If the minimum required power for acceptable performance is

25 mW, what is the outage probability in a Rayleigh channel with an
average received power of 100 mW?
Answer: The outage probability is: 1-exp(-25/100)=0.2212
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 The phase of the received signal

Y

tan 1

is uniformly distrubuted and the pdf is given by

g ( )

1
,
2

0 2

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3.7.3 Rician Fading: Rxer is closer to Txer, stronger LOS or

due to Specular Components
Assumption : There is a direct path exists between the transmitting and
receiving antennae (a0 0)

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 EX a 0 , EY 0, Var(X) Var(Y) 2
From central limit theorem, X ~ N(a 0 , 2 ) and Y ~ N(0, 2 )
From definition of X and Y , X and Y are also independent
The envelope of the received signal
A X 2 Y 2
is Rician distrubuted and the pdf is given by
r
f (r ) 2 e

r 2 2
2 2

r
,

I0

r0

where r is the envelope of fading signal, is standard deviation,

is the amplitude of direct signal, and I 0 ( x) is the zero - order
1
modified Bessel function, given by I 0 ( x)
2
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x
e
x cos
e
d
0
2x 53

- The pdf of envelope of composite signal according to Rician distribution

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- The Rician pdf is often characetrized by the ratio of the power of the
direct component to the power of the diffuse component ( Rician factor )
2

K (dB) 10log10
2
2

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3.7.4 Lognormal Fading: Vegetative Shadowing (VS)

-

The received signal undergoes long-term fading

It will be the result of multiple scattering. E.g., the signal is likely to be

multiply reflected or scattered before taking multiple paths to the receiver

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 Received signal is :
j n
b

m , n e
n 1
n 1 m 1

represent the scattering strengths of the multiply refelected

N

er a n e

where bm ,n

j n

components and which can be easily modeled as Rayleigh - distributed r.v.s

The mean value of the received power, PLT , is :

M

PLT bm2 ,n
m 1

or

PdB 10 log10 PLT 10 log10 bm2 ,n

m 1

Applying the central limit theorem, the pdf of PdB is

f p dB

1
2 dB

exp

p dB Pav 2
2
2 dB

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 The pdf of the signal power PLT under logonormal fading is

f p PT

1
2 p LT

exp

1
2 p LT

ln
2
2
p0

where p 0 is the average power in milliwatts and

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dB ln(10)
10

58

 Example : If the power received at the MS is lognormal with a standard

deviation of 8 dB, calculate the outage probability. Assume that
the average power being received is - 95 dBm and the threshold
power is - 98 dBm.

Answer : Pout

pthr

98

1
2 dB
1

exp

exp
2 8

p dB Pav 2
2

dp dB

2
dB

p dB (95) 2

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dp dB 0.3538

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3.7.5 Nakagami Fading (or Nakagami m distribution:

The Rayleigh and Rician models of fading assume that the amplitudes of
the scattered components from the different paths are equal

The Nakagami model is very general and allows for the possibility of
different strengths for the scattered components

The Nakagami model can also work under conditions where the
possibility of partial correlation exists between scattering elements.

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 The pdf of the envelope of the received signal is

f A ( x)

2 m 1

2m a
e
( m) m

mx 2
2

x0

where (m) m x 1e x dx is the gamma function, EA 2

0

Remarks:

EA
and m
E A
2 2

(1). If m=1, the Nakagami fading becomes the Raleigh fading;

(2). If m=0.5, the Nakagami fading becomes the one-side Gaussian distribution
(3). When m goes to infinite, it becomes an impulse (no fading)
(4). The Rice fading can be closely approximated by using the following
relation between the Rice factor K and the Nakagami shape factor m
K

m2 m
m m2 m

( K 1) 2
for m 1 and m
2K 1

(5). Since the Rice Fading contains a Bessel function while the Nakagami
fading does not, the Nakagami fading often leads to convenient closed
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analytical expressions that areEECS
otherwise
unattainable.

 The pdf of the envelope of the received signal is

f A ( x)

2 m 1

2m a
e
m
( m )

mx 2
2

x0

where (.) is the gamma function, EA 2

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EA
and m
E A
2 2

62

3.7.6 Suzuki Fading:

-

Rayleigh and lognormal fading have been considered to be two separate

effects. However, the phenomena responsible for short-term fading
(Rayleigh) and long-term fading (lognormal) occur concurrently.

The mean value of the power received under Rayleigh fading conditions
typically has a lognormal distribution, i.e., the Rayleigh distribution
essentially is not a marginal distribution, but a conditional one:
r
e
2

where has the lognormal pdf g (t )

f (r | )

r2
2 2

r0

f A (r ) f (r | ) g ( )d
0

r
e
2
0

r2
2 2

1
2 p LT

1
2 p LT

exp

ln
2
2
p0

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3.7.7 Summary of Fading:

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3.8. Characteristics of Instantaneous Amplitude

The analysis of fading in terms of Rayleigh statistics does not allow a
clear understanding of how often deep fades occur or how long they last

Rayleigh statistics merely provide information on the overall percentage of

time that the signal goes below a certain level

Information is needed on the rate at which deep fades occur, so that system
designers can choose specific approaches for appropriate data rates, word
lengths and coding schemes to mitigate the effects of deep fades

Level Crossing Rate (LCR):

Fading Duration;

Fading Rate:

Depth of Fading

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3.8.1. Level crossing rate

The expected number at which the envelope crosses a specific signal level in
the positive direction

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 The result : Let p ( R, x) be the joint pdf of the signal level R and
dA(t )
the envelope slope x(t )
, then the level crossing rate is
dt

N ( R ) x p( R, x) dx
0

* For a sine wave plus narrow - band Guassian noise, Rice found
R(2 ) 3 / 2
p ( R, x )
Bb0

1
2
2
2

exp
B
R

2
Rs
cos(

b
x

b
s
sin(

0
1
2Bb0

where s is the non - centrality parameter in the Rice distribution, b0 , b1 and

b2 are constants deriving from the narrow - band noise and B b0b2 b12

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* An expression for N ( R ) is given by

R2
2 2

N ( R)
fm R e

v
where f m , the maximum Doppler frequency, and

v : moving speed of mobile user;

: the carry wavelength;

2 2 : mean square value of the fading envelope.

R
, the ratio between the specific level and
2
the root mean square (rms) value of the fading envelope, then

* * If denote by

N ( R) 2 f m e

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N ( R ) 2 f m e

Example: For a Rayleigh fading signal, if the maximum Doppler

frequency is 100 Hz and the specific signal level is 3 dB below
the rms level, what is the level crossing rate?
Key: the maximum Doppler frequency is 100 Hz

f m 100

the specific level is 3 dB below the rms level

10 log10 (

R
) 3dB
2

R
1

2 2

Therefore
N ( R ) 2 f m e

1 14
2 100 e
2
97.85 crossing per second

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3.8.2. Fading Duration

The average duration that the envelope level remains below a specified level R

Consider a very long time interval of length

T and let t i be the duration of the ith fade
below the level R, then
the average envelope fade duration
unit time

1
T

per

P( A R)

However,

the average fade duration per unit time

the average fade duration level crosing rate
( R) N ( R)

P( A R)
General results : ( R )
N ( R)
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* If the envelope has the Rice distribution, then

P( A R ) 1 Q 2 K , 2( K 1) 2

where Q (a, b) is the Marcum Q function

(R)

1 Q 2 K , 2( K 1) 2

2 ( K 1) f m e K ( K 1) I 0 2 K ( K 1)

* * Normalized average envelope fade duration : ( R) f m

* * If the envelope is Rayleigh distribution, then

( R)

1 e

2 f m e

e 1
2 f m

An approximate express : ( R )

v 2

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3.8.3. Fading Rate

The number of times that the signal envelope crosses the middle value rm in a
positive-going direction per unit time.
* The mean value rm of the envelope signal : P ( A rm ) 0.5
* N (rm )

2 velocity of mobile user 2

carrier wavelength

3.8.4. Depth of Fading

EA 2 (t )
rm r0, where r0 is determined by P( A r0 ) 10%
min A(t )

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3.9. Other Characteristics

3.9.1 Doppler Effect:

Radio waves transmitted by a vehicle moving towards or away from the

receiver will not receive exactly the same frequency as that of the transmitter.
-

It is well known for its influence on sound waves

* When they are moving toward each
other, the frequency of the received
signal is higher than the source
* When they are moving away each other,
the frequency of the received signal is
lesser than the source

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 The frequency f r of the received signal is f r f c - f d

where f c is the frequency of source carrier
f d is the Doppler frequiency or doppler shift

Doppler shift in frequency is : f d

v
cos

where v is the moving speed

is the wavelength of the carrier
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3.9.2 Delay spread

The spreading out effect of the signal

- When a signal propagates from a transmitter to a receiver, signal suffers
one or more reflections
- This forces signal to different paths
- Each path has different path length, so the time of arrival for each path is
different

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Denote by p(t) the pdf of the delay D

- The average delay spread is

- The deley spread is

m ED xp( x)dx

d var( D)

( x ED)

p( x)dx

Some representative delay pdf

t

1 m
* Exponential : p (t )
e
m
* Uniform :

p (t )

1
2 m

for t 0
for t [0,2 m ]

- Measured data for delay spread

Type of environment

Delay spread

Open area

<0.2 ms

Suburban area

0.5 ms

Urban area

3.0 ms
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3.9.3 Inter-symbol interference

Caused by time-delay multi-path signal

If a low bit-error-rate (BER) performance is desired, then

the digital transmission rate R

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3.9.4 Coherence Bandwidth

A statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the channel

passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear
phase

It represents a frequency range for which either the amplitudes or phases of

two received signals have a high degree of correlation.

When the correlation coefficient for two fading signal envelopes at

frequencies f 1 and f2 is equal to 0.5, the coherence bandwidth for two fading
amplitude of two received signals is given by

1
Bc
2 d

If the two frequencies are further apart than the coherence bandwidth, the
signals will fade independently.

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3.9.5 Co-channel interference

The key concept of the cellular system is the Frequencies Reuse

The frequency allocation is done in such a way that the probability of cochannel interference between cells using the same frequency is less than a
given value

Co-channels interference:

Pco P rd ru
where rd is the desired signal level
ru is the interfering undesired signal level

is the protection ratio

If rd 's density function is p d ( x) and ru's density function is pu ( x)

x
Pco p d ( x) P ru dx p d ( x)

0
0

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(
y
)
dy
dx
x u

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