Chapter 3

Space, Time, and Motion

(1) Wind Observations

Vectors have both magnitude and
direction.
Wind is a vector quantity.
The components of wind can be
expressed in the Cartesian coordinates:
x, y, z.

 Wind Instruments:

Anemometer and wind vane

Aerovane
Sonic anemometer

 Anemometer and
wind vane.

 Aerovane

 Sonic
Anemometers

(2) Plotting Data

Each element has a standard location and format.

Station

dd

ff

TT

TdTdTd

PPPPP

ppp

ww

Cl

Cm

Ch

Cordoba,
Argentina

11/2

25

08

17

16

1021.2

017

58

Station
Id.
McGrath,
Alaska.
70231

Air
Temp.
(C)

Dew
Point
Temp.
(C)

Height
(meters)

Wind
Direction
(degrees)

Wind
Speed
(knots)

-30

-34

5450

100

27

(3) Derivatives in Time and Space

If a graph is drawn with the values of a quantity on the
vertical and time on the horizontal, then drawing a line
tangent to the graph line and determining its value (slope)
will determine the derivative of that quantity with respect
to time.
The tangent technique measures the derivative - how the
quantity changes with respect to time.

 Similarly, if the quantity was drawn on a

graph with a spatial direction; e.g., the
x-, y-, or z-direction. Then, the slope of
the tangent to the line at the location of
interest determines the derivative of the
quantity with respect to that direction.

 Actually, these derivatives are estimations since it is

very difficult to draw an accurate line tangent to the
parameter line, and we are looking at the change
over a rather large time interval or large x-direction
interval.
Calculus considers the denominator value as
approaching zero.
Secondly, these derivatives should be considered
partial derivatives because temperature changes in
all three directions as well as time.
If we are considering only the change in the xdirection, we are assuming that there are no changes
in the other directions or time.

(4) Advection
Advection (in meteorology) is the rate of
change of some property of the
atmosphere by the horizontal movement
of air.
The rate of change is a derivative (with
respect to time).

 If at 2:00 pm the
carbon monoxide
concentration was 80
ppb at a location 30 nm
upstream from
Savannah, Georgia,
and the wind were
blowing at 15 knots
toward Savannah,
when would the
concentration at
Savannah reach 80
ppb with no sources or
sinks.

 The 80 ppb air must travel 30 nm and it

is moving at 15 knots. Divide 30 nm by
15 knots (nm/hr) and you get a travel
time of 2 hours. 2:00 pm + 2 hours =
4:00 pm.

 Suppose the concentration at Savannah

at 2:00 pm were 60 ppb. How rapidly
will the carbon monoxide concentration
change.
The rate of change = (change in
concentration)/(change in time)

 The change in concentration of carbon

monoxide can be written as:
( [ CO] ) x

The subscript
is there to indicate we are
only considering the change at Savannah
which is not moving. The x-direction is
toward Savannah.

 Thus, the rate of change =

[ CO] x
t

(80ppb 60ppb) 20ppb 10ppb

=
=
= 3x103 ppb/sec
(2hours)
2hrs
hr

The wind speed (magnitude of the

horizontal wind velocity vector in the
direction of interest)
can be written as:
x

v =

x
t = r
v

Then,

 We can then write the rate of change as:

( [ CO] ) x
t

r ( [ CO] ) x
= v
x

We can get the rate of change with time

(derivative
with respect to time) from the rate

of change with distance (derivative with

respect to distance) if we know the velocity of
the wind.
Essentially, it is simply:
CO
CO

[ ] x
[ ] r [ CO]
=

= v
t
t
x
x

(5) The One-Dimensional Vector Equation

If we consider the change in time and the
change in x as approaching zero, we have the
instantaneous rate of change at a point (e.g.,
Savannah).
Writing in calculus form (partial differential
equation since we are only considering the
change in the direction of the wind field (our
x-direction), we have:
[ CO]
[ CO]

= u

t
x

 This is a general advection equation

(along the x-coordinate - the west to
east direction). (We are using u the
component of the wind along the xcoordinate
One can write such an equation for the
advection along the y-coordinate, or zcoordinate.

Consider the following analysis of [CO].

To get the rate of
change of [CO]
(partial derivative
of [CO] with
respect to time) at
Savannah, we
need the partial
derivative of [CO]
with respect to x
and the average
wind speed.
Notice that concentrations at Savannah are less than they are
upwind, so the rate of change of [CO] over time should be positive.

Just as on a graph, to
get the change in
concentration of [CO],
pick two points on
either side of the point
of interest and get the
difference between
those values. In this
case, 50-70= -20.
Now, divide by the distance between those points, 30nm. This will
be the slope of the graph line at Savannah which will be the rate
of change of [CO] with respect to distance at Savannah.
50ppb 70ppb 20ppb
=
= 0.667ppb / nm
30nm
30nm

 The wind speed is everywhere 15 knots (nm/hr) so

the average wind speed is 15 nm/hr.
Then, the rate of change of [CO] with time is:

[ CO]
[ CO]

= u
= 15nm / hr ( 0.667ppb / nm ) = 10ppb / hr
t
x

Similarly, the equation can be set up for any spatiallyvarying atmospheric variable; such as, temperature:
T
T
= u
t
x

(6) Equations on the Brain

To understand the equation and how it

relates to the atmosphere:

Say it in words.
See if it makes sense if each variable or
derivative, in turn, is zero.
See if the signs make sense.
See it it makes sense if certain variables get
larger or smaller.
Make up a concrete example and work
through it.

 For the advection equation.

T
T
= u
t
x

The equations states that the rate of

change of temperature with respect to time
at a particular locationis equal to the
negative of the wind speed times the rate
of variation of temperature in the direction
toward which the wind is blowing.

 For various terms set to zero.

T
T
= 0
t
x

If wind speed is zero, no air is being

transported, so the wind is not changing

the temperature, so the advection

is zero.
T
If x is zero, then the temperature T = u 0
t
is uniform along the x-axis, so the
air blowing in is the same temperature as
the air blowing out so advection
is zero.

 For this situation,

remember, the
equation relates to
advection at that
instant, at a particular
location. Here the
advection is zero
because the change in
temperature at that
instant is zero.
You would have to average u and T/x over a much
larger distance to get a non-zero value, not just locally.

 Does the sign make

sense?

If this were analyzed

temperature, orient x to point
toward where the wind is
blowing, then u will always be
positive.
The sign of the temperature
change with time then will be determined by the sign of the
downwind variation with temperature.
If T/x is positive, (T down - T up), then if you graphed T versus
x, the slope would be positive.
Warmer temperatures would be downwind.
If T/ x is negative, then a slope of T vs x would have colder
temperatures downwind (slope would be negative) as we have.

 Check the magnitude.

Suppose the average wind is 5 m/s toward

east and temperatures are colder
upstream, warmer downstream.
Then, if the wind were stronger, the change
would occur faster and temperatures would
drop faster - greater change in temperature
with time - greater advection.
If the temperature change with distance is
small, the temperature change over time
would be small.

 Check with numbers.

Assume a wind speed of 5 m/s and

temperatures are colder by 5oK over a
distance of 100km upstream.
Then,with a wind speed of 5 m/s, how long
will it take the colder
air to travel 100km?
5
100km 1x10 km
=
= 2x10 4 sec
5m
5m
m
s

So, temperature should drop at a rate of

5oK every
2 x 104o seconds. This is:

o
T
5 K
K
=
=
2.5x10
4
s
t
(2x10 s)

 Check equation with numbers.

Assume a wind speed of 5 m/s and

temperatures are colder by 5oK over a
distance of 100km upstream.
o
o
T
5 o K
K
5
K
=
5
=
=
5.0

10
Then,

100km
100000m
m
x
and
T
T
=
u

= 5 m

s
t
x

5 0K
5 o K
4 o K

=
25x10
=
2.5x10

5
s
s
1x10
m

(6) Space-Time Conversion

In a constant negative wind field (wind blowing from
the east toward the west at the same speed all about
the point of interest, the advection equation becomes:
T
T
= (constant)
t
x

Thus, a graph of temperature vs. time would have the

same shape as a graph of temperature vs. location
(x-coordinate).

The only difference would be the scale determined by

the constant wind speed.
And, whatever changes in temperature occur at a
given location (T/t) must correspond to variations in
the upstream temperature pattern (T/x).

 The differences in
the horizontal
scale is simply
due to the speed
of the wind.

(8) Phase Speed

The examples have been using wind as the
cause of the advection, but the same concept
can be applied to anything that is moving
regardless of the cause.
As long as you can tell how fast it is moving
(e.g., a cold front), the speed can be used in
the advection equation to determine the
change over time.
The time record of observed meteorological
variables at a particular space (location) can be
converted directly into a depiction of the
horizontal structure of the phenomena.

 The front is moving at 20

knots and it passed North
Platte two hours ago, so it
should be 40 miles past
North Platte, at location B.
If temperature at North
Platte two hours ago was
52oF and it is moving toward
Dodge City at 20 knots, the
52oF air should arrive in
Dodge City in 5 hours after
being in North Platte, or in
another 3 hours.

Questions:
Do: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5