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ENGINEERING
Introduction to Electrical
Systems
Chapter 2 Resistive
Circuits
Resistive Circuits
Series Resistances
A series combination of resistance has an equivalent
resistance equal to the sum of the original resistances
KVL:
Resistive Circuits
Parallel Resistances
A parallel combination of resistance has an equivalent
resistance equal to the sum of the reciprocals of original
resistances
KCL:
KCL:
Geq = G1+G2+G3
Resistive Circuits
Network Analysis by using Series and
Parallel Equivalents
Network analysis is the process of determining the current,
voltage, and power for each element given the circuit diagram
and the element values. The steps are:
1.Begin by locating a combination of resistances that are in series or
parallel. The best place to start is usually farthest from the source.
2.Redraw the circuit using the equivalent resistance for the combination
found in step 1.
3.Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the circuit is reduced as far as possible.
Often (but not always) we end up with single source and a single
resistance.
4.Solve for the current and voltages in the final equivalent circuit. Then,
transfer results back each step and solve for all unknown currents and
voltages. Again, transfer the results back each step and solve.
5.Repeat until all of the currents and voltages are known in the original
circuit.
Resistive Circuits
Network Analysis by Using Series and Parallel
Equivalents - 1
Resistive Circuits
Network Analysis by Using Series and
Parallel Equivalents - 2
i1 3 A;
i2 2 A;
i3 1A.
Resistive Circuits
Network Analysis by Using Series and
Parallel Equivalents - 3
i2=v2/R2= 60V/30 = 2A
i3=v2/R3= 60V/60 = 1A
v1=R1i1=10 3A = 30V
p3= v22/R3=(60V)2/60 = 60 W
ps+ p1 + p2 + p3 =0 Energy conservation
8
Resistive Circuits
Voltage Divider - 1
Principle of voltage division:
Of the total voltage, the fraction that appears across a given resistance
in a series circuit is the ratio of the given resistance to the total series
resistance
Req = R1+R2+R3
i=vtotal /Req
v1=R1 i = R1 (vtotal /Req )
v2=R2 i = R2 (vtotal /Req )
v3=R3 i = R3 (vtotal /Req )
Resistive Circuits
Voltage Divider - 2
R1
v1 R1i
v total
R1 R2 R3
R2
v2 R2 i
v total
R1 R2 R3
10
Resistive Circuits
Voltage Divider - 3
R1
v1
vtotal
R1 R2 R3 R4
1000
15
1000 1000 2000 6000
1.5V
Resistive Circuits
Voltage Divider - 4
R1
v1
vtotal
R1 R2 R3 R4
1000
15
1000 1000 2000 6000
1.5V
v1 1.5V ;
v2 1.5V ;
v3 3V ;
v4 9V .
12
Resistive Circuits
Current Divider
Principle of current division:
For two (only) resistances is parallel, the fraction of the total current
flowing in a resistance is the ratio of the other resistance to the sum of
two resistances. [If more than two in parallel, they must be combined
only to two in the circuit.]
1/Req = 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
Req = (R1 R2)/(R1 + R2)
v=Req itotal
i1=v/R1 = [R2/(R1 + R2)] itotal
i2=v/R2 = [R1/(R1 + R2)] itotal
i1
G1
itotal ;
G1 G2
i2
G2
itotal
G1 G2
13
RR
30 60
Req 2 3
20
R2 R3 30 60
i1
Req
i1
R2
v
itotal
R1 R1 R2
i2
R1
v
itotal
R2 R1 R2
is
20
15 10A
10 20
R1 Req
G1
i1
itotal ;
G1 G2 G3
i2
G2
itotal ;
G1 G2 G3
i3
G3
itotal
G1 G2 G3
60
1
5 3 A;
30 60
3
30
2
i3
5 1 A
30 60
3
i2
14
Resistive Circuits
Current and Voltage Divider Example
15
Resistive Circuits
position transducer potentiometer (Voltage Divider Example)
A transducer produces a voltage proportional to a physical quantity of interest
(such as distance, pressure, temperature, )
16
17
Resistive Circuits
Node Voltage Analysis - 1
Example: (note positive polarity at the head of the arrow)
Variables: node voltages V2 and V3
Reference node
For unknown Vx , using KVL for the loop with the unknown
-V2 + Vx + V3=0
Vx = V 2 - V 3
Ohms law is used to find currents when node voltages are known
18
Resistive Circuits
Node Voltage Analysis - 2
To find the current flowing out of node n through a resistance
towards node k, we subtract the voltage at node k from voltage at
node n and divide the difference by the resistance between the nodes
19
Resistive Circuits
Node Voltage Analysis - 3
We use KCL to write an equation at each node.
Node 1:
Node 2:
Node 3:
(G1 G2 )v1 G2 v2 is ;
G2 v1 (G2 G3 G4 )v2 G4 v3 0;
G4 v2 (G4 G5 )v3 is
Matrix form:
v1 v1 v2
is
R1
R2
v2 v1 v2 v2 v3
0
R2
R3
R4
v3 v3 v 2
is
R5
R4
G2
0
G1 G2
G
G
2
2
3
4
4
0
G4
G4 G5
v1 is
v 0
2
v3 is
GV I
V G 1I
20
Resistive Circuits
Node Voltage Analysis - 3
G2
0
G1 G2
G
G
2
2
3
4
4
0
G4
G4 G5
v1 is
v 0
2
v3 is
g
g
21
22
23
g 31 g 32 g 33
v1
v
2
v3
i1
i2
i3
GV I
V G 1I
21
Resistive Circuits
Node Voltage Analysis - 4
Node 1:
v1 v s
Node 2:
v2 v1 v2 v2 v3
0
R2
R4
R3
Node 3:
v3 v1 v3 v3 v 2
0
R1
R5
R3
G3
G2 G4 G3
G
G
G
3
1
5
3
Matrix form:
v2 G2 v1
v Gv
3 1 1
GV I
V G 1I
22
Resistive Circuits
Solving the Network Equations
Once we have written the equations needed for the node
voltages we put equations into standard form
We group the node-voltage variables on the left-hand side of the
equations and place terms that do not involve the node voltages
on the right-hand sides
Then we can solve for the node voltages by variety methods,
such as substitution and determinants, MATLAB etc.
I recommend on-line solver WIMS that is capable of making
parametric (symbolic) calculations
http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?session=Q753BAD623.1&+l
ang=en&+module=tool%2Flinear%2Flinsolver.en&+method=matrix
&+cmd=resume
23
Resistive Circuits
Solving the Network Equations WIMS - 1
WIMS numerical example insert numbers and press Solve
24
Resistive Circuits
Solving the Network Equations WIMS - 2
WIMS parametric (symbolic) example 1
25
Resistive Circuits
Solving the Network Equations WIMS - 3
WIMS parametric (symbolic) example 2
A powerful tool
There may be no solution at all
If there is no unique solution infinite set of solutions (matrix A rank
is less than its size), WIMS will prompt about the structure of the
solutions family
26
Resistive Circuits
Solving the Network Equations
Example
27
Resistive Circuits
Node Voltage Analysis - Circuits with Voltage Sources - 1
For this circuit it is impossible to
write a current equation in terms
of the node voltages for every
node because of the floating
voltage source
The circuit requires to form a
supernode
28
Resistive Circuits
Node Voltage Analysis - Circuits with Voltage Sources - 2
The modified KCL for
supernodes: The net current
flowing through any closed surface
(enclosed by dash lines) must
equal zero.
Note v3 = -15 V because node 3
connected to the negative
terminal of the source
Then, for the supernode enclosing the 10-V source, we sum currents
leaving the supernode surface through one of the resistors
v1 v1 15 v 2 v 2 15
0
R2
R1
R4
R3
29
Resistive Circuits
Node Voltage Analysis - Circuits with Voltage Sources - 3
Note, we obtain linearly
dependent equations if we
use all the nodes in writing
current equations, i.e., if we
would use current equations
for both supernodes (they
comprise all 4 nodes of the
circuit)
To avoid dependency we can
v2 v1 10
use KVL (clockwise sense) to
the loop that include the
v1 v1 15 v 2 v 2 15
voltage source
R2
R1
R4
R3
Resistive Circuits
Node Voltage Analysis - Circuits with Voltage Sources - 4
Exercise 2.13 (Page 91 - 92)
To solve for three voltages any two of
the following three KCL equations can
be used (one supernode and two normal
nodes, including the reference node)
Node 3 equation
v3 v1 v3 v 2
v
3 0
R2
R3
R4
Reference
node
v1 v1 v3 v 2 v 3
1
R1
R2
R3
v1 v2 10
Resistive Circuits
Node Voltage Analysis - Circuits with Dependent Sources - 1
Write KCL equations at each node, including the current of the controlled
source the same as if it were an ordinary current source
(independent node):
v1 v2
is 2i x
R1
v 2 v1 v 2 v 2 v 3
0
R1
R2
R3
v3 v 2 v3
2i x 0
R3
R4
Then use one additional equation for the dependent source current
value ix in terms of node voltage
v3 v 2
ix
R3
32
Resistive Circuits
Node Voltage Analysis - Circuits with Dependent Sources - 2
Substitution yields:
v v
v1 v2
is 2 3 2
R1
R3
v 2 v1 v 2 v 2 v 3
0
R1
R2
R3
v3 v 2 v3
v3 v 2
2
0
R3
R4
R3
Three equations, three unknowns
33
Resistive Circuits
Mesh Current Analysis - 1 ( )
i3 i2 i1
Combined equations:
34
Resistive Circuits
Mesh Current Analysis - 2
R3
R2 R3
i1 v A
i v
B
2
35
Resistive Circuits
Mesh Current Analysis - 3
Mesh current analysis advantages seen for more complex networks
Note actual current direction in the common resistor for two meshes
For example, if current in R2 referenced to the right, then i2 is algebraic
sum i1 - i3, if to the left, then i3 - i1
After solving for mesh currents, actual currents may take negative actual
values for selected reference directions
36
Resistive Circuits
Mesh Current Analysis - 4
R3 i2 i1 R4i2 v B 0
For mesh 3, we have:
R2 i3 i1 R1i3 v B 0
R1i1 R2 i1 i4 R4 i1 i2 v A 0
R5i2 R4 i2 i1 R6 i2 i3 0
R7i3 R6 i3 i2 R8 i3 i4 0
R3i4 R2 i4 i1 R8 i4 i3 0
37
Resistive Circuits
Mesh Current Analysis - 5
R1 R3
R
3
R3
R2 R3
- 150 20 i1 10 (i1 - i 2 ) 0
30 i1 - 10 i 2 150
10 (i 2 - i1 ) 15 i 2 100 0
- 10 i1 25 i 2 - 100
i1 4.23 A
i 2 - 2.31 A
i1 v A
i v
B
2
Resistive Circuits
Mesh Current Analysis - 5
R1 R3
R
3
R3
R2 R3
- 150 20 i1 10 (i1 - i 2 ) 0
30 i1 - 10 i 2 150
10 (i 2 - i1 ) 15 i 2 100 0
- 10 i1 25 i 2 - 100
i1 4.23 A
i 2 - 2.31 A
i1 v A
i v
B
2
Resistive Circuits
Mesh Current Analysis - 6
R1 R2 R4
R4
R2
R4
R4 R5 R6
R6
0
R6
R6 R7 R8
R8
R2
i1 v A
i 0
0
2
i3 0
R8
R2 R3 R8 i4 0
40
Resistive Circuits
Mesh Current Analysis with Current Sources - 1
Classic mesh current analysis voltage sources
Analysis for current sources is dual for node voltage analysis with voltage
sources
Current source in an individual mesh explicitly defines respected mesh current
(dual to a grounded voltage source that defines a node voltage)
i1 2 A
10(i2 i1 ) 5i2 10 0
41
Resistive Circuits
Mesh Current Analysis with Current Sources - 2
How do we write KVL for meshes 1 and 2 that have common current source?
Supermesh combination of meshes 1 and 2
KVL is applied to the supermesh first
i1 2 i 1 i3 4 i2 i3 10 0
Then KVL is applied to mesh 3
3i3 4 i3 i2 2 i3 i1 0
Then for the current source :
i1 i2 5
Finally, we can define all of the mesh currents from these equations
42
Resistive Circuits
Mesh Current Analysis - Controlled Current Source Example
Supermesh equation
20 4i1 6i 2 2i 2 0
Finally, we can define all of the mesh currents from these equations
i1 i2
vx
4
and
v x 2i2
i1 i2 / 2
i1 1 A
i2 2 A
43
Resistive Circuits
Thevenin Equivalent for Two-Terminal Circuits
Two-terminal (single-port) circuit is one (that can be of any
complex interconnections of resistances and sources) that has only
two points or nodes that can be connected to other circuits
The Thevenin equivalent of such circuits is one that consists of
only an independent voltage source in series with a resistance
44
Resistive Circuits
Thevenin Equivalent for Two-Terminal Circuits
The Thevenin equivalent with open-circuited terminals has no
current flowing through the circuit, therefore Vt v oc
Rt
isc
45
Resistive Circuits
Thevenin Equivalent for Two-Terminal
Circuits Example
i1
vs
15
0.1 A
R1 R2
100 50
Voc Vt R2 ii 5 volts
i sc
vs
15 v
0. 15 A
R1
100
Rt
Voc
5 volts
33.33
isc
0.15 A
46
Resistive Circuits
Finding Thevenin Resistance for Two-Terminal Circuits
Directly [1]
47
Resistive Circuits
Example: Thevenin Equivalent with a
Dependent Source
We use node - voltage
analysis for the open-circuit
voltage (not direct)
and
Voc = 8.57 v
Short-circuit
48
Resistive Circuits
Norton Equivalent for Two-Terminal Circuits
The Norton equivalent consists of an independent current source In
in parallel with the Thevenin resistance
49
Resistive Circuits
Norton Equivalent for Two-Terminal Circuits
If we place a short circuit across the Norton equivalent, the Norton current
becomes equal to the short-circuit current In = iSC
looking
50
Resistive Circuits
Norton Equivalent for Two-Terminal Circuits Example
Vx VOC - 15 Voc
0
4
20
20
KCL
Vx VOC - Vx
5
15
0
16
20
20
Voc = 4.62 volts
Vx = 0 volts
isc = 15 v / 20 = 0.75 A
R TH
6.15
ISC
0.75 A
51
Source Transformations
i1 = 10 V / 15 = 0.67 A
i2 = 5 A * 5 / 15 = 1.67 A
i3 = 10 A * 5 / 15 = 3.33 A
52
Resistive Circuits
Maximum Power Transfer
Question: What load resistance RL should be connected to a two-terminal
circuit in order to maximize the power delivered to the load?
Resistive Circuits
Superposition Principle
Suppose we have a circuit composed resistors, linear dependent (which follow
the linear function) sources and n independent sources
The current flowing in each element is a response to the independent sources
Consider zeroing all the independent sources (current sources become open
circuits and voltage sources become short-circuited) except the first source
The response ( while sources are zeroed) for that source is then r1 (could be
either current or voltage response)
If we keep only the second source the response becomes r2
We can repeat the process for each source in the circuit until response to the nth
source rn is obtained
The superposition principle states that he total response is the sum of the
responses due to each of the independent sources acting individually:
rT r1 r2 rn
54
Resistive Circuits
Superposition Principle Example
1.Only voltage source active
(apply voltage division principle)
55
Resistive Circuits
Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone bridge is a circuit to measure unknown resistances
56
Resistive Circuits
Wheatstone Bridge
Summary: Step-by-step
Thvenin/Norton-Equivalent-Circuit
Analysis
1. Perform two of these:
a. Determine the open-circuit voltage Vt = voc.
b. Determine the short-circuit current In = isc.
c. Zero the sources and find the Thvenin resistance Rt
looking back into the terminals. Cannot zero
dependent sources.
2. Use the equation Vt = Rt In to compute the
remaining value.
3. The Thvenin equivalent consists of a voltage
source Vt in series with Rt.
4. The Norton equivalent consists of a current
source In in parallel with Rt.
58