VARIABLE-FREQUENCY NETWORK

PERFORMANCE
LEARNING GOALS
Variable-Frequency Response Analysis
Network performance as function of frequency.
Transfer function
Sinusoidal Frequency Analysis
Bode plots to display frequency response data

Resonant Circuits
The resonance phenomenon and its characterizatio

Filter Networks
Networks with frequency selective characteristics:
low-pass, high-pass, band-pass

VARIABLE FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS

In AC steady state analysis the frequency is assumed constant (e.g., 60Hz).

Here we consider the frequency as a variable and examine how the performa
varies with the frequency.
Variation in impedance of basic components

Resistor

Z R R R0

Inductor

Z L jL L90

Capacitor

Zc

1
1

90
j C C

Frequency dependent behavior of series RLC network

2
1
( j ) 2 LC jRC 1 j RC j ( LC 1)

Z eq R jL

j
C
j C
j C

"Simplifica
tionin notation" j s
s 2 LC sRC 1
Z eq ( s )
sC

| Z eq |

(RC ) (1 LC )
C
2

2 LC 1

Z eq tan
RC

Simplified notation for basic components

Z R ( s ) R, Z L ( s ) sL, Z C

1
sC

For all cases seen, and all cases to be studied, the impedance is of the form

am s m am 1s m 1 ... a1s a0
Z ( s)
bn s n bn1s n1 ... b1s b0

Moreover, if the circuit elements (L,R,C, dependent sources) are real then th
expression for any voltage or current will also be a rational function in s
LEARNING EXAMPLE

1
sC

R
sRC
VS 2
VS
R sL 1 / sC
s LC sRC 1
s j
jRC
Vo
VS
2
( j ) LC jRC 1

Vo ( s )

sL
R

j (15 2.53 103 )

Vo
100
2
3
3
( j ) (0.1 2.53 10 ) j (15 2.53 10 ) 1

LEARNING EXAMPLE A possible stereo amplifier

Desired frequency characteristic
(flat between 50Hz and 15KHz)

Log frequency scale

Postulated amplifier

Frequency Analysis of Amplifier

Rin
VS ( s )
Rin 1 / sC in

Vin ( s )

G ( s)
Vo ( s )

1 / sC o
[1000Vin ]
1 / sC o Ro

Vo ( s ) Vin ( s ) Vo ( s )

VS ( s ) VS ( s ) Vin ( s )
Voltage Gain

Frequency domain equivalent circuit

s
40,000

sC in Rin
1

[
1000
]
G ( s)
s 40,000
[1000] 1 sC R s 100
1

sC
R

in in
o o

C in Rin

100

3.18 10 10

Co Ro 1 79.58 109

6 1

required

100 (50 Hz )
40,000 (20kHz )

s
40,000
100 | s | 40,000 G ( s ) [1000]
s
40,000
Frequency dependent behavior is
caused by reactive elements

actual

NETWORK FUNCTIONS Some nomenclature

When voltages and currents are defined at different terminal pairs w

define the ratios as Transfer Functions

INPUT
Voltage
Current
Current
Voltage

OUTPUT TRANSFER FUNCTION SYMBOL

Voltage
Voltage Gain
Gv(s)
Voltage
Transimpedance
Z(s)
Current
Current Gain
Gi(s)
Current
Transadmittance
Y(s)

If voltage and current are defined at the same terminals we define

Driving Point Impedance/Admittance
EXAMPLE

To compute the transfer functions one must so

the circuit. Any valid technique is acceptable

tance
I 2 ( s ) Transadmit

V1 ( s ) Transferadmittance
V ( s)
Gv ( s ) 2
Voltagegain
V1 ( s )

YT ( s )

LEARNING EXAMPLE

VOC ( s )

sL
V1 ( s )
sL R1
The textbook uses mesh analysis. We will
use Thevenins theorem

1
1
sLR1
R1 || sL

sC
sC sL R1
s 2 LCR1 sL R1
ZTH ( s )
sC ( sL R1 )
ZTH ( s )

tance
I 2 ( s ) Transadmit

V1 ( s ) Transferadmittance
V ( s)
Gv ( s ) 2
Voltagegain
V1 ( s )

YT ( s )

ZTH (s)

VOC (s)

sL
V1 ( s )
sL R1
VOC ( s )
sC ( sL R1 )
I 2 ( s)

s 2 LCR1 sL R1 sC ( sL R1 )
R2 ZTH ( s )
R2
sC ( sL R1 )

I 2 ( s)
R2 V2 ( s )

s 2 LC
YT ( s ) 2
s ( R1 R2 ) LC s ( L R1 R2C ) R1

Gv ( s )

V2 ( s ) R2 I 2 ( s )

R2YT ( s )
V1 ( s )
V1 ( s )

POLES AND ZEROS (More nomenclature)

am s m am 1s m 1 ... a1s a0
H ( s)
bn s n bn1s n1 ... b1s b0

Arbitrary network function

Using the roots, every (monic) polynomial can be expressed as a

product of first order terms

H ( s) K 0

( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

z1 , z2 ,..., zm zerosof thenetworkfunction

p1 , p2 ,..., pn polesof thenetworkfunction
The network function is uniquely determined by its poles and zeros
and its value at some other value of s (to compute the gain)
EXAMPLE

zeros: z1 1,
poles: p1 2 j 2, p2 2 j 2
H ( 0) 1

H ( s) K 0

( s 1)
s 1
K0 2
( s 2 j 2)( s 2 j 2)
s 4s 8

1
H ( 0) K 0 1
8

H ( s) 8

s 1
s2 4s 8

Find thepoleandzerolocationsandthe valueof K o

LEARNING EXTENSION
for the voltagegain G ( s )

H ( s) K 0

Vo ( s )
VS ( s )

( s z1 )( s z2 )...( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )...( s pn )

Zeros = roots of numerator

Poles = roots of denominator

For this case the gain was shown to be

s
40,000

sC in Rin
1

[
1000
]
G ( s)
s 40,000
[1000] 1 sC R s 100
1

sC
R

in in
o o

zero: z1 0
poles: p1 50 Hz , p2 20,000 Hz
K 0 (4 107 )

Variable
Frequency
Response

SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY ANALYSIS

A0e j ( t )

B0 cos( t )

H (s )

A0 H ( j )e j ( t )

B0 | H ( j ) | cos t H ( j )

Circuit represented by
network function

To studythebehaviorof a networkas a functionof the frequencywe analyze

thenetworkfunctionH ( j ) as a functionof .

Notation
M ( ) | H ( j ) |

( ) H ( j )
H ( j ) M ( )e j ( )

Plotsof M ( ), ( ), as functionof are generallycalled

magnitudeandphasecharacteri
stics.
20 log10 (M ( ))
BODEPLOTS
vs log10 ( )

HISTORY OF THE DECIBEL

Originated as a measure of relative (radio) power

P2 |dB (overP1 ) 10 log

P2
P1

V2
V22
I 22
PI R
P2 |dB (overP1 ) 10 log 2 10 log 2
R
V1
I1
2

V |dB 20 log10 | V |
By extension I |dB 20 log10 | I |

G |dB 20 log10 | G |

Using log scales the frequency characteristics of network functions

have simple asymptotic behavior.
The asymptotes can be used as reasonable and efficient approximation

General form of a network function showing basic terms

Poles/zeros at the origin
Frequency independent

K 0 ( j ) N (1 j1 )[1 2 3 ( j 3 ) ( j 3 ) 2 ]...
H ( j )
(1 j a )[1 2 b ( j b ) ( j b ) 2 ]...

log( AB ) log A log B First order terms

Quadratic terms for
complex conjugate poles/zeros
N
log( ) log N log D
D
| H ( j ) |dB 20 log10 | H ( j ) | 20 log10 K 0 N 20 log10 | j |
20 log10 | 1 j1 | 20 log10 | 1 2 3 ( j 3 ) ( j 3 ) 2 | ...
20 log10 | 1 j a | 20 log10 | 1 2 b ( j b ) ( j b ) 2 | ..
z1z2 z1 z2 H ( j ) 0 N 90
Display each basic term
z1
2

z1 z2
1
1
separately and add the
3
3

tan

tan

...
1
z2
results to obtain final
1 ( 3 ) 2
2 b b
tan 1 a tan 1
...
1 ( b ) 2

answer

Lets examine each basic ter

Constant Term

the x - axisis log10

thisis a straightline
Poles/Zeros at the origin

( j )

| ( j ) N |dB N 20 log10 ( )

( j ) N N 90

1
2
0.5

| 1 j |dB 20 log10 1 ( ) 2
1

Simple pole or zero

(1 j ) tan 1
(1 j ) 0

1 | 1 j |dB 0 low frequencyasymptote

1 | 1 j |dB 20 log10 highfrequencyasymptote(20dB/dec) (1 j ) 90

The two asymptotes
meetwhen 1(corner/bre
ak frequency)
Behavior in the neighborhood of the corner

corner
octave above
octave below

distance to
FrequencyAsymptoteCurve asymptote Argument
0dB
3dB
3
45
6dB

7db

63.4

0dB

1dB

26.6

Asymptote for phase

Low freq. Asym.

High freq. asymptote

Simple zero

Simple pole

2
2
Quadratic pole or zerot 2 [1 2 ( j ) ( j ) ] [1 2 ( j ) ( ) ]

| t 2 |dB 20 log10

1 ( )

2 2

t 2 tan 1

1 | t 2 |dB 0 low frequencyasymptote

t 2 0

2
1 ( ) 2

1 | t 2 |dB 20 log10 ( )2 highfreq.asymptote40dB/dec t 2 180

1 | t 2 |dB 20 log10 (2 ) Corner/break frequency

t 2 90

1 2 2 | t 2 |dB 20 log10 2 1 2

t 2 tan

These graphs are inverted for a zero

Magnitude for quadratic pole

2
1 2 2

Phase for quadratic pole

LEARNING EXAMPLE Generate magnitude and phase plots

Draw asymptotes
for each term

Gv ( j )

10(0.1 j 1)
( j 1)(0.02 j 1)

Breaks/cor
ners: 1,10,50

Draw composites

dB
40
20

10 |dB

20dB / dec

0
20dB / dec

20

90
45 / dec

45 / dec

0.1

10

100

90
1000

asymptotes

LEARNING EXAMPLE Generate magnitude and phase plots

Draw asymptotes for each Gv ( j )
Form composites

25( j 1)
( j ) 2 (0.1 j 1)

Breaks(corners): 1,10

dB
40
28dB

20
0

40dB / dec

20

90

45 / dec

45

90

180

0.1

10

100

270

Final results . . . And an extra hint on poles at the origin

40

dB
dec

20

dB
dec
40

1
K0
0 K0 2
( j ) 2 dB

dB
dec

LEARNING EXTENSION

Sketch the magnitude characteristic

breaks: 2,10,100
104 ( j 2)
G ( j )
But the functionis NOT in standardform
( j 10)( j 100)
20( j / 2 1)
We need to show about
Put in standard formG ( j )
4 decades
( j / 10 1)( j / 100 1)

dB
40

26 |dB

20
0
20

90

10

100

1000

90

LEARNING EXTENSION

Sketch the magnitude characteristic

It is in standardform
breakat 50
Doublepoleat the origin

100(0.02 j 1
G ( j )
( j ) 2

dB
40
20
0
20

90
90

10

100

Once each term is drawn we form the composites

270
1000

LEARNING EXTENSION
Put in standard form

G ( j )

j
( j 1)( j / 10 1)

Sketch the magnitude characteristic

G ( j )

10 j
( j 1)( j 10)

not in standardform
zeroat the origin
breaks: 1,10

dB
40
20
0
20

20dB / dec

20dB / dec

90
90

0.1

10
Once each term is drawn we form the composites

100

270

DETERMINING THE TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM THE BODE PLOT

This is the inverse problem of determining frequency characteristics.

We will use only the composite asymptotes plot of the magnitude to postulate
a transfer function. The slopes will provide information on the order
A. different from 0dB.
There is a constant Ko
A

K 0 |dB 20 K 0

D
E

K 0 |dB
10 20

B. Simple pole at 0.1

( j / 0.1 1) 1
C. Simple zero at 0.5

( j / 0.5 1)
D. Simple pole at 3

( j / 3 1) 1
E. Simple pole at 20

G ( j )

10( j / 0.5 1)
( j / 0.1 1)( j / 3 1)( j / 20 1)

( j / 20 1) 1

If the slope is -40dB we assume double real pole. Unless we are given more da

LEARNING EXTENSION

Determine a transfer function from the composite

magnitude asymptotes plot
A. Pole at the origin.
Crosses 0dB line at 5

C
E
A
B

5
j
B. Zero at 5
C. Pole at 20
D. Zero at 50
E. Pole at 100

5( j / 5 1)( j / 50 1)
G ( j )
j ( j / 20 1)( j / 100 1)

Sinusoida

RESONANT CIRCUITS
These are circuits with very special frequency characteristics
And resonance is a very important physical phenomenon

ParallelRLC circuit
SeriesRLC circuit
Z ( j ) R j L

1
j C

Y ( j ) G j C

1
j L

The reactanceof eachcircuitis zerowhen

1
1
L
0
C
LC

The frequency at which the circuit becomes purely resistive is called

the resonance frequency

Properties of resonant circuits

At resonance the impedance/admittance is minimal

Z ( j ) R j L
| Z |2 R 2 (L

1
j C

1 2
)
C

1
j C
j L
1 2
| Y |2 G 2 (C
)
L

Y ( j ) G

Current through the serial circuit/

voltage across the parallel circuit can
become very large

QualityFactor: Q

0 L
1

R
0CR

Given the similarities between series and parallel resonant circuits,

we will focus on serial circuits

Properties of resonant circuits

VR

j L

V1
L

VC j

I
C

CIRCUIT
SERIES
PARALLEL

GV1

BELOW RESONANCE
CAPACITIVE
INDUCTIVE

Phasor diagram for series circuit

jCV1

ABOVE RESONANCE
INDUCTIVE
CAPACITIVE

Phasor diagram for parallel circuit

LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the resonant frequency, the voltage across eac
element at resonance and the value of the quality factor

1
0 L 50
0C
VC

1
I j 50 5 250 90
j 0 C
Q

1
1

2000rad / sec
3
6
LC
(25 10 H )(10 10 F )
At resonance Z 2
V
100
I S
5A
Z
2

0 L (2 103 )(25 103 ) 50

VL j 0 LI j 50 5 25090 (V )

0 L
R

50
25
2

At resonance
VS
Q | VS |
R
| VC | Q | VS |
| VL | 0 L

LEARNING EXTENSION

Find the value of C that will place the circuit in resona

at 1800rad/sec

1
1
1
1800
C
LC
0.1( H ) C
0.1 18002
C 3.86 F

Find the Q for the network and the magnitude of the voltage across the
capacitor

0 L
1800 0.1
Q
60
R
3

At resonance
VS
Q | VS | | V | 600V
C
R
| VC | Q | VS |
| VL | 0 L

M ( )

Resonance for the series circuit

Z ( j ) R j L
| Z |2 R 2 (L

1
j C

1 2
)
C

0 2
2
1

Q
(

0
BW

1/ 2

0
Q

Claim: The voltagegainis

V
1
Gv R
V1 1 jQ ( 0 )
0
Gv
At resonance
:

0 L QR, 0C

R
1
R jL
jC
1
QR

Z ( j ) R j
Gv

R
Z

R
Z ( j )

Half powerfrequencie
s

( ) tan 1 Q (

QR j 0 QR
0

R 1 jQ ( 0 )
0

M ( ) | Gv |, ( ) | Gv

LO

1
1
0

2Q
2Q

0
)
0

LEARNING EXAMPLE

Determine the resonant frequency, quality factor and

bandwidth when R=2 and when R=0.2

5 F
2mH

0
0
R
2
0.2

1
LC

0 L
1

R
0CR

1
(2 103 )(5 106 )
Q
10
100

BW

0
Q

104 rad / sec

R
2
0.2

Q
10
100

BW(rad/sec)
1000
100

LEARNING EXTENSION A series RLC circuit as the following properties:

R 4, 0 4000rad / sec, BW 100rad / sec

Determine the values of L,C.

1
LC

0 L
1

R
0CR

BW

0
Q

1. Given resonant frequency and bandwidth determine Q.

2. Given R, resonant frequency and Q determine L, C.

0 4000

40
BW 100

QR 40 4

0.040 H
0 4000

1
1
1
6

1
.
56

10
F
2
2
6
L 0 0 RQ 4 10 16 10

PROPERTIES OF RESONANT CIRCUITS: VOLTAGE ACROSS CAPACITOR

At resonance
| V0 | Q | VR |
But this is NOT the maximum value for the
voltage across the capacitor

1
j C

V0
1

2
1
VS
1

LC jCR
R jL
jC

g ( u)

umax

2
0 L
1

V
Q

0
R
0CR u ; g V
0
S
1
dg
2(1 u 2 )(2u) 2(u / Q )(1 / Q )
1
2
2
0

2
(
1

u
)

2
2 u
2
2
du

Q
2
1 u2
u
2
1

1
LC

1
max 1
0
2Q 2

gmax

4
4Q

1
Q2
Q | VS |

|
V
|

0
1
1 1 1
1

2
2
4
1

4Q
Q
2Q
4Q 2

0 , max whenR 50 and R 1

LEARNING EXAMPLEDetermine
50mH

5 F

1
LC
umax

0
Q

1
1

2000rad / s
2
6
LC
(5 10 )(5 10 )

2000 0.050
R

max 2000 1 1

R
50
1

0 L
1

R
0CR

max
1
1
0
2Q 2

2Q 2

Q Wmax
2
1871
100 2000

Evaluated with EXCEL and rounded to zero decimals

Using MATLAB one can display the frequency response

R=50
Low Q
Poor selectivity

R=1
High Q
Good selectivity

FILTER NETWORKS
Networks designed to have frequency selective behavior
COMMON FILTERS

High-pass filter

Low-pass filter

We focus first on
PASSIVE filters

Band-reject filter
Band-pass filter

Simple low-pass filter

1
V
1
j C
Gv 0

V1 R 1
1 jRC
j C
1
Gv
; RC
1 j
M ( ) | Gv |

1
1 2

Gv ( ) tan 1
1
1

M max 1, M

1
half powerfrequency

BW

Simple high-pass filter

Gv

V0
R
jCR

V1 R 1
1 jCR
j C

Gv

j
; RC
1 j

M ( ) | Gv |
Gv ( )

tan 1
2

1
1

M max 1, M

1
half powerfrequency

LO

Simple band-pass filter

Band-pass

V
Gv 0
V1
M ( )

LO

R
1

R j L

RC

RC 2 2 LC 1

HI
2

1
1 M ( 0) M ( ) 0
LC

0
M ( LO )

1
LC

1
M ( HI )
2

( R / L)

R / L 2 4 20
2

( R / L)

R / L 2 4 20
2

BW HI LO

R
L

Simple band-reject filter

1
1
0
j 0 L
LC

at 0 thecapacitoractsas opencircuit V0 V1
at theinductoractsas opencircuit V0 V1

LO , HI are determined
as in the
band- passfilter

LEARNING EXAMPLE

Depending on where the output is taken, this circuit

can produce low-pass, high-pass or band-pass or bandreject filters

Band-reject filter

Band-pass

Bodeplot for R 10, L 159 H , C 159 F

VL

VS

VC

VS

j L

1
R j L

1
j C

1
R j L

VL
0 0, VL ( ) 1
VS
VS

VC
0 1, VC ( ) 0
VS
VS

High-pass

Low-pass

ACTIVE FILTERS
Passive filters have several limitations
1. Cannot generate gains greater than one
2. Loading effect makes them difficult to interconnect
3. Use of inductance makes them difficult to handle
Using operational amplifiers one can design all basic filters, and more,
with only resistors and capacitors

The linear models developed for operational amplifiers circuits are valid, in
more general framework, if one replaces the resistors by impedances
These currents are
zero

Ideal Op-Amp

Basic Inverting Amplifier

I1

V1
Z1

I 0
V 0
V 0

Infinitegain V V
Infiniteinputimpedance
I- I 0

V1 VO

0
Z1 Z 2
VO

Z2
V1
Z1

Z2
Z1

Linear circuit equivalent

EXAMPLE

USING INVERTING AMPLIFIER

LOW PASS FILTER

Basic Non-inverting amplifier

V1

I1 0
I 0
V1

V0 V1 V1

Z2
Z1
V0

Z 2 Z1
V1
Z1

G 1

Z2
Z1

USING NON INVERTING CONFIGURATION

EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE SECON ORDER FILTER

V V
V
V V V

0
R
1/ C s R
R
2

IN

V
V

0
R 1/ C s
2

V ( s)
2