TRAN3001

Highway Engineering Lecture

6
PAVEMENT MATERIALS
Soil
Structure
Classification
Tests
Stabilization
Aggregates
Bitumen

Pavement Materials
Soil Structure
The primary structure of a soil refers to the
manner in which the individual soil particles are
or can be arranged with respect to each other.
The secondary structure refers to the system of
cracks, fissures and other discontinuities which
may develop after a soil is formed and deposited.
Primary Structure
Karl Terzaghi, regarded as the father of soil
mechanics, described the primary structure of soils
as single-grained, honey-comb and flocculated.
This description recognises that structure is
dependent on particle size and shape as well as on
the minerals that comprise the individual grains.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Single-grained

Flocculated

Honeycomb

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Structure (Contd)
Primary Structure (Contd)
In a single-grained structure each soil particle
is in direct contact with several adjacent
particles.
A single-grained structure is usually associated
with coarse-grained sand and gravel but is
found to a lesser extent in fine-grained soils.
An important consideration in highway
engineering is the ability of these soils to
deform.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Structure (Contd)
Primary Structure (Contd)
When deformation is caused by means such as
vibration which causes the particles to slide or roll into
a more dense state, loose soils decrease in volume
while dense soils increase in volume.
Saturation of the finer-grained cohesionless material,
such as fine sand, after being deposited in a loose state
(for example when constructing an embankment), can
result in unstable construction if the material is then
deformed by vibration produced by earthquake or
construction equipment.
The void ratio decreases and when as a result of the
lower permeability the water cannot escape from the
soil quickly enough, the pore pressure can build up to
the point where the water is carrying all the load.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Structure (Contd)
Primary Structure (Contd)
This has the effect of holding the soil grains apart
and producing a condition that is practically
equivalent to quicksand as liquefaction takes
place.
A honeycomb structure comprises particles which
are in contact with each other at only a few points
and is found mainly with silt-sized particles.
The inter-molecular forces at the contact points
are strong enough to maintain the structure,
however these soils have high void ratios.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Structure (Contd)
Primary Structure (Contd)
These soils tend to have a critical load
below which large volume changes will
not occur. Higher loads sufficient to break
down the structure will result in
considerable settlement, since the soil
behaves as if it were single-grained and
deposited in a loose state.
A flocculent structure is generally
associated with clay soils.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Structure (Contd)
Primary Structure (Contd)
Particles are generally arranged in face-toface or edge-to-edge contact.
Clays with these types of structure can have
relatively high void ratios. Heavy loads on
these soils can cause the edges to slide
along the surfaces with which they are in
contact, resulting in a more dense
arrangement and consequent reduction in
the void ratio.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Classification
There are many soil classification
systems in use depending on the area
of study. The most widely used
engineering classification system is
based on the one developed by
Professor Casagrande in the 1940s.
A minor modification of the original
system gave rise to the Unified
Classification System (UCS).

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Classification (Contd)
Soils seldom exist in nature separately as
sand, gravel, or any other single
component. They are usually found as
mixtures with particles of different sizes.
Each component part contributes its
characteristics to the soil mixture.
The USCS is based on those
characteristics of the soil that indicate
how it will behave as an engineering
construction material.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Classification (Contd)
The properties which have been found most
useful for this purpose and form the basis of
soil identification are listed below.
They can be determined by simple tests and
with experience, can be estimated with some
accuracy:
Percentages of gravel, sand and fines.
Shape of the grain-size-distribution curve.
Plasticity and compressibility characteristics.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Classification (Contd)
In the USCS, the soil is given a descriptive name and
a letter symbol indicating its principal characteristics.
Soils used in highway engineering are primarily
identified as coarse-grained (at least 50% by weight
coarse) or fine-grained.
Coarse-grained soils are gravels or sands and given
the prefix G or S depending on the amount of each
fraction present. Similarly the fine-grained soils are
assigned the prefix M for silt and C for clay.
Each group is then divided into secondary groups and
assigned a suffix based on the particle size
distribution, plasticity and compressibility.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Classification (Contd)
Coarse-grained soils are divided into four
groups and assigned the suffix W, P, M or C
as follows :
well-graded material with little or no fines
suffix W, groups GW and SW.
poorly-graded material with little or no fines
suffix P, groups GP and SP.
coarse material with non-plastic fines or
fines with low plasticitysuffix M, groups GM
and SM.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Classification (Contd)
coarse material with plastic finessuffix
C, groups GC and SC.
The fine-grained soils are subdivided into
two groups and assigned the suffix L, or H
as follows:
fine material with low compressibility and
liquid limit suffix L, groups ML and CL.
fine material with high compressibility and
liquid limit suffix H, groups MH and CH.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Tests
Particle Size Analysis
Sieve analysis, whereby a measured quantity of soil is
passed through a series of successively smaller sieves, is
carried out to determine the percentage of individual
particle sizes present.
The results can be presented in tabular form in which is
listed the percentage of the total that passes a given sieve
size, or is smaller than a specified particle diameter.
Alternatively the sieve/particle sizes versus the
percentage passing can be plotted. Because of the wide
range of possible values the particle/sieve size is plotted
to a logarithmic scale while the percentage passing is
plotted to an arithmetic scale.
This test is used for soil classification.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Tests (Contd)
Wet/Dry Unit Weight Test
In 1933 R Proctor devised a laboratory test,
now known as the Proctor test, where soil
samples are compacted at different moisture
contents using laboratory compacting efforts
considered equivalent to field compaction.
He discovered that as moisture contents
increased the unit weights increased up to a
maximum value after which they decreased.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Tests (Contd)
Wet/Dry Unit Weight Test (Contd)
The moisture content at which the maximum dry
unit weight was obtained was termed the
optimum moisture content. Following Proctors
early tests, standardized laboratory procedures
were developed and are in use today.
Relative compaction specifications generally
require that a certain percentage of the
maximum dry unit weight be achieved in the
field. This percentage varies from 90% to 95%
for coarse-grained soil to 95%-100% for silts and
clays.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Tests (Contd)
Consistency Test
The consistency of a soil is a measure of its
resistance to flow, which reflects its
cohesive (rather than inter-granular)
resistance.
Known as the Atterberg limits, the Liquid
Limit is the moisture content at which the
soil flows and the Plastic Limit is the
moisture content at which the soil starts to
crumble when rolled into a thread.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Tests (Contd)
Consistency Test (Contd)
The difference between the liquid and plastic
limits is the Plasticity Index, which is the range
of moisture content over which a soil is in the
plastic state.
The most common application of the
consistency test is for soil classification. Soils
with high liquid limits have poor engineering
properties and the consistency test results
would serve to exclude these materials from
embankments.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Tests (Contd)
Shear tests
The experimental values of the shear
characteristics of the soil determine the
probability of a soil failing in shear under the
loads and conditions imposed in the field.
Soil not only provides the foundation for the
pavement but also embankment material so
the likelihood of a sound pavement and
stable embankment must be investigated.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Tests (Contd)

Shear tests (Contd)

In the direct shear test a normal load (parallel to
the axis of the sample) as well as incremental
lateral loads (perpendicular to the axis of the
sample) are applied to each specimen and
measurements made of the loads applied and the
displacements resulting from these loads.
In the triaxial shear test each specimen is
subjected to three compressive stresses at right
angles to each other. This means that the plane of
failure is not pre-determined (i.e. not necessarily
horizontal). Uniform lateral pressure is
also applied.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Tests (Contd)
Shear tests (Contd)
The analysis of the results is similar for
each test. Load versus displacement
curves are plotted and a critical point on
each curve is determined, for example the
allowable displacement.
The purpose of the test is to ascertain the
value of each of the two components of
shear resistance, friction and cohesion.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Tests (Contd)
Consolidation Test
This is used to estimate both the rate of
settlement and the total amount of
settlement, under an applied load, of
saturated soils of low permeability like clays.
The two principal values obtained from this
test are the compressive index (total
settlement) and the coefficient of
consolidation (rate of settlement).

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Soil Stabilization
Compaction
Soil compaction is mechanical stabilization of
the soil and is widely used in road construction.
Soil compaction reduces the pore spaces in a
soil, restricting air and water movement into
and through the soil.
The advantages are increased density and
load-bearing capacity and reduced soil
settlement under traffic loads.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Preloading/Surcharge
Preloading by constructing an embankment
over a poor soil and allowing enough time for
partial or full consolidation of the underlying
soil increases its bearing capacity and
reduces the amount of subsequent settlement
when the pavement is subject to traffic loads.
Vertical sand drains penetrating the
underlying soil reduce the time required for
consolidation as the pore water flows faster
through the sand.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Cement Stabilization
Enough water for compaction and hydration is
added to a mixture or pulverized soil and Portland
cement.
After compaction and curing a hardened material
is formed that meets the necessary criteria like
stability.
Almost any soil can be stabilized with Portland
cement if enough cement is used with the right
amount of water and then properly compacted and
cured.
Consideration must be given to whether cement
stabilization is an economical solution under the
particular circumstances.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Aggregates
Aggregates are used in highway
engineering as an end product, in their
natural state or crushed and also used
as a raw material (with binders) for the
manufacture of Portland cement concrete
and asphaltic concrete. They can be
natural or artificial (slag).
Crushed aggregates are more angular and
therefore provide better interlock
between the particles.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Aggregates (Contd)
Aggregates used in road construction should have
strength and toughness, the ability to be crushed into
bulky particles (not flaky, thin or elongated), low
porosity, hydrophobic characteristics and the particle
sizes and gradation should be appropriate.
Aggregates used in bituminous surfacings and
concrete pavements must also be resistant to
polishing, which provides skid resistance.
Tests routinely carried out on aggregates include
sieve analysis, abrasion, water absorption and
specific gravity. The latter is important to confirm
that there is no significant variation in the values for
the coarse and fine fractions.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen
Bitumen is a dark brown to black viscous
liquid or solid, consisting essentially of
hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
It is soluble in trichloroethylene,
substantially non-volatile, and softens
gradually when heated.
Bitumen is obtained by refining petroleum
crude oil, although it is also found as a
naturally occurring deposit in Trinidad and
elsewhere.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
As a binder, bitumen is a strong, readily adhesive,
highly waterproof and durable material. It is highly
resistant to the action of most acids, alkalis and
salts.
Although solid or semi-solid at normal
temperatures, bitumen may be readily liquefied by
applying heat, by dissolving it in petroleum
solvents, or by emulsifying it in water.
The properties of refinery bitumen, both chemical
and physical, are dependent on the crude oil
source from which it is derived.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Refineries generally use consistent sources of crude
which result in consistent bitumen properties. However,
bitumen still needs to be evaluated through laboratory
testing to assess its performance characteristics.
Penetration-grade Bitumen
Penetration-grade bitumens are manufactured from the
fractional distillation of crude oil and can also be
obtained naturally from the pitch lake in Trinidad which
is about 55% bitumen (together with mostly mineral
matter).
Penetration-grade bitumens are also called asphaltic
bitumens and asphalt cements.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Penetration-grade Bitumen (Contd)
Designation is by penetration range only, e.g. 60/70
pen bitumen (commonly used to produce asphaltic
concrete in Trinidad and Tobago) has a penetration
that ranges from 60 to 70 inclusive. The penetration
number reflects the hardness of the bitumen, with
the lower number indicating a harder bitumen.
The penetration grade bitumens have a
thermoplastic property which causes them to soften
at high temperatures and harden at low
temperatures.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Cut-back Bitumens
A cut-back bitumen comprises asphaltic
bitumen dissolved in a liquid solvent which
makes it suitable for direct application in road
construction.
The solvent (which reduces the requirement for
heat) is used to lower the viscosity of the
bitumen. The solvent in the cut-back will
evaporate and the bitumen will bind the
aggregate. The solvents used for preparation
of cutback bitumen include gasoline, kerosene
and diesel.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Cut-back Bitumens (Contd)
There are different types of cutback
bitumens, usually designated as rapid curing
(RC), medium curing (MC) and slow curing
(SC).
RC is recommended for surface dressing and
patchwork as the very volatile solvent, like
gasoline, evaporates quickly. The volatility of
the solvent also makes its use hazardous.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Cut-back Bitumens (Contd)
MC cut-backs are produced by using a
solvent like kerosene. They have good
aggregate coating properties and are
applied as prime coats to granular
roadbases and other surface treatments.
SC cut-backs use diesel and other low
volatile solvents in their manufacture.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Cut-back Bitumens (Contd)
SC cut-backs remain liquid for a relatively long
time so the binding strength takes equally long
to develop.
Consequently these cut-backs are best used
with dense-graded aggregates which have
strong interlocking frameworks and are not
dependent on immediate, strong, cementing
action from the binder. They can be used in cold
asphalt mixes and as tack coats (between
bituminous pavement surfacings).

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Bitumen Emulsions
Bitumen emulsions are usually dispersions
of minute droplets of bitumen in water. The
bitumen content is varied to suit different
requirements and ranges from 30% to 70%.
The primary objective of emulsifying
bitumen is to get a product that can be used
without the low to very high heat normally
required when using cutbacks and
penetration grade bitumens.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Bitumen Emulsions (Contd)
In the manufacture of bitumen emulsions, hot
bitumen is sheared rapidly in water containing an
emulsifying chemical (emulsifier).
This produces a stable suspension of very small
particles of bitumen (the dispersed phase) in
water (the continuous phase).
The bitumen particles do not readily coalesce due
to the presence of the emulsifier, which is
concentrated on the surface of the bitumen
particles.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Bitumen Emulsions (Contd)
During application, the water in a bitumen emulsion
is either lost by evaporation, or it may separate
from the bitumen because of the chemical nature of
the surface to which the emulsion is applied.
Because bitumen has a density only slightly higher
than water, sedimentation of the bitumen droplets
in an emulsion during storage is very slow.
Emulsions can usually be fully regenerated after
long storage times by gentle stirring to re-disperse
the bitumen droplets.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Bitumen Emulsions (Contd)
The coating of the bitumen particles by the
emulsifier gives them an electrostatic charge.
Depending on the type of emulsifier, this can
be either negative or positive.
The interaction of the charged particles is the
reason emulsions do not rapidly revert to the
separate phases.
.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Bitumen Emulsions (Contd)
Emulsions in which the bitumen droplets
are negatively charged are called anionic
emulsions while positively charged
emulsions are called cationic emulsions.
The positive and negative charges on the
cationic and anionic emulsions requires
that they must not be mixed. Emulsions
are used as tack coats.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Bitumen Tests
There are many tests which are conducted
to ensure the quality of bitumen for use on a
highway construction project, examples of
which are as follows:
Penetration test
Viscosity test
Flash and Fire Point test

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Bitumen Tests (Contd)
Penetration test
This test is done to determine the
consistency (hardness or softness) of
bitumen, which is the distance in tenths of a
mm that a standard needle would penetrate
vertically into a sample of the bitumen
under standard conditions of temperature,
load and time (25o C, 100 g and 5 sec).

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Bitumen Tests (Contd)
Viscosity test (Contd)
The viscosity of a liquid is the property that
retards flow so that when a force is applied
to the liquid, the higher the viscosity the
slower the movement of the liquid.
While viscosity varies inversely with
penetration, different values of viscosity
can be obtained for the same value of
penetration depending on the source.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Bitumen Tests (Contd)
Flash and fire point test
The flash point of a bitumen is the lowest
temperature at which the periodic
application of a test flame across the
surface of a sample of the bitumen, heated
at a uniform rate, causes the vapours from
the material to momentarily catch fire in
the form of a flash of blue flame.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Bitumen (Contd)
Bitumen Tests (Contd)
Flash and fire point test (Contd)
Further heating gets to the fire point, which is the
lowest temperature at which the flame causes the
vapours to continue to burn for at least 5 seconds.
This is primarily a safety test and the flash point is
the more important as it indicates the maximum
temperature to which the bitumen should be heated.
It also shows the volatility of the bitumen, with the
flash points ranging from over 300 oC for penetration
- grade bitumens to as low as 27 oC for RC cut-backs.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Cement
Portland cement is the most common type of
cement in general use around the world and is
used as a basic ingredient in the manufacture of
(Portland cement) concrete and for stabilizing
soils.
Ordinary Portland cement
This is the cement that will be supplied by the
manufacturer unless another type is specifically
ordered. It has a medium rate of hardening and is
suitable for most construction, including road
construction.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Cement (Contd)
Rapidhardening Portland cement
This hardens/strengthens more rapidly than
ordinary cement, however the times for the
initial and final sets are about the same (not a
quick -setting cement).
Rapidhardening is more expensive than ordinary
cement as the 7-day strength of the former is
approximately equal to the 28-day strength of
normal cement.
An example of its use in road construction is
when it is necessary to allow traffic to use the
route as soon as possible.

Pavement Materials (Contd)

Cement (Contd)
Sulphateresisting cement
Sulphate-resisting Portland cement is a type of
Portland cement in which the amount of certain
compounds present in the cement is controlled/
restricted to prevent deterioration of the
concrete/cement-stabilized pavement when
exposed to sulphates.
It is more expensive than ordinary cement,
however sulphates present in sea-water, some
ground-water and clay soils, can mandate its use.