Ch.

3 Wireless Radio
Technology

Acknowledgements

Thanks Rick Graziani, Networking Professor with Cabrillo

College, for allowing me to use your presentation material

Thanks Jack Unger and his book Deploying License-Free

Wireless Wide-Area Networks
Published by Cisco Press
ISBN: 1587050692
Published: Feb 26, 2003

Thanks Mark Ciampa and his book CWNA Guide to Wireless

LANs
Published by Course Technology
ISBN: 0-619-21579-8

Radio Wave Transmission Principles

Understanding principles of radio wave transmission is

important for:
Troubleshooting wireless LANs
Creating a context for understanding wireless
terminology

Attenuation
Same wavelength (frequency),
less amplitude.

Attenuation is the loss in amplitude that occurs whenever a signal

travels through wire, free space, or an obstruction.
At times, after colliding with an object the signal strength remaining is
too small to make a reliable wireless link.

Attenuation and Obstructions

Shorter the wavelength (higher frequency) of the wireless signal, the

more the signal it is attenuated.

Same wavelength
(frequency), less
amplitude.

Longer the wavelength (lower frequency) of the wireless signal, the

less the signal is attenuated.

Attenuation and Obstructions

The wavelength for the AM (810 kHz) channel is 1,214 feet

The larger the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the
obstruction, the less the signal is attenuated.
The shorter the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the
obstruction, the more the signal is attenuated.

Free-Space Waves

Free-space wave is a signal that propagates from Point A

to Point B without encountering or coming near an

obstruction.
The only amplitude reduction is due to free space loss
(coming).
This is the ideal wireless scenario.

Microwave
Reflections

Microwave signals:
Frequencies between 1 GHz 30 GHz (this can vary among experts).
Wavelength between 12 inches down to less than 1 inch.
Microwave signals reflect off objects that are larger than their wavelength,
such as buildings, cars, flat stretches of ground, and bodes of water.
Each time the signal is reflected, the amplitude is reduced.

Microwave Reflections
Multipath Reflection

Advantage: Can use reflection to go around obstruction.

Disadvantage: Multipath reflection occurs when reflections cause
more than one copy of the same transmission to arrive at the receiver
at slightly different times.

Multipath
Reflection
Reflected signals 1 and 2

take slightly longer paths

than direct signal, arriving
slightly later.
These reflected signals
sometimes cause
problems at the receiver
by partially canceling the
direct signal, effectively
reducing the amplitude.
The link throughput slows
down because the
receiver needs more time
to either separate the real
signal from the reflected
echoes or to wait for
missed frames to be
retransmitted.
Solution discussed later.

Multipath Reflection

Delay spread is a parameter used to signify multipath. The delay of

reflected signal is measured in nanoseconds (ns). The amount of
delay spread varies for indoor home, office, and manufacturing
environments.
Multipath and Diversity Article from Cisco

Diffraction

Diffracted
Signal

Diffraction of a wireless signal occurs when the signal is partially blocked or obstructed by a large

object in the signals path.

A diffracted signal is usually attenuated so much it is too weak to provide a reliable microwave
connection.
Do not plan to use a diffracted signal, and always try to obtain an unobstructed path between
microwave antennas.

Weather - Precipitation

Precipitation: Rain, snow, hail, fog, and sleet.

Rain, Snow and Hail
Wavelength of 2.4 GHz 802.11b/g signal is 4.8 inches
Wavelength of 5.7 GHz 802.11a signal is 2 inches
Much larger than rain drops and snow, thus do not significantly
attenuate these signals.
At frequencies 10 GHz and above, partially melted snow and hail do
start to cause significant attenuation.

Weather - Precipitation

Rain can have other effects:

Get inside tiny holes in antenna systems, degrading the

performance.
Cause surfaces (roads, buildings, leaves) to become more reflective,
increasing multipath fading.
Tip: Use unobstructed paths between antennas, and do not try to blast
through trees, or will have problems.

Weather - Ice

Ice buildup on antenna systems can:

Reduce system performance
Physically damage the antenna system

Collapsed tower

Weather - Wind

The affect of wind:

Antenna on the the mast or tower can turn, decreasing the aim of the
antenna.
The mast or tower can sway or twist, changing the aim.
The antenna, mast or tower could fall potentially injuring someone or
something.

Refraction

Refraction (or bending) of signals is due to temperature, pressure, and

water vapor content in the atmosphere. (Also could be the a result of
the difference in air density)
Amount of refractivity depends on the height above ground.
Refractivity is usually largest at low elevations.

Working with Wireless Power

Working with Wireless Power

More on all these in a moment
Power can be:
Increased (gain)
Decreased (loss)
Power can be:
Relative (ex: twice as much power or as much power)
Absolute (ex: 1 watt or 4 watts)
Both relative and absolute power are always referenced to initial power
level:
Relative power level (0dbm)
Absolute power level (1mw)
Wireless power levels become very small, very quickly after leaving the
transmitting antenna.
Wireless power levels are done in dBm.
Wireless power levels do not decrease linearly with distance, but decrease
inversely as the square of the distance increases

Inverse square law

Signal strength does not fade in a linear manner, but inversely as the
square of the distance.
This means that if you are a particular distance from an access point
and you move measure the signal level, and then move twice a far
away, the signal level will decrease by a factor of four.
Twice the distance

Point A

Point B
the power of Point A

Inverse square law

10

Point A

20

30

3 times the distance

1/9 the power of Point A

2 times the distance

the power of Point A

40

50

100

10 times the distance

1/100 the power of A
5 times the distance
1/25 the power of Point A

Double the distance of the wireless link, we receive only of the

original power.
Triple the distance of the wireless link, we receive only 1/9 the original
power.
Move 5 times the distance, signal decreases by 1/25.

Watts

The U.S. Federal Communications Commission allows a maximum

of 4 watts of power to be emitted in point-to-multipoint WLAN
transmissions in the unlicensed 2.4-GHz band.
In WLANs, power levels as low as one milliwatt (mW), or one onethousandth (1/1000th) of a watt, can be used for a small area.
Typical WLAN NICS transmit at 100 mW.
Typical Access Points can transmit between 30 to 100 mW (plus the
gain from the Antenna).

Watts

Power levels on a single WLAN segment are rarely higher than 100

mW, enough to communicate for up to three-fourths of a kilometer or

one-half of a mile under optimum conditions.
Access points generally have the ability to radiate from 30 to100 mW,
depending on the manufacturer.
Outdoor building-to-building applications (bridges) are the only ones
that use power levels over 100 mW.

Wireless Power Ratios

dB = 10 log10 (Pfinal/Pref)

1w
1w
1w
1w

Mw = 10 (dBm/10)
1w
1w

1w

2 Watts

1 Watt

2:1 Ratio =
+ 3 dBW

1w

1w

1w

1w

1w

1w

1w

1w

4 Watts

1 Watt

4:1 Ratio =
+ 6 dBW

1w

1w

8 Watts

1 Watt

8:1 Ratio =
+ 9 dBW

Every dB (decibel) value is a ratio.

The dB is measured on a base 10 logarithmic scale.
The base increases ten-fold for every ten dB measured.

Decibels - FYI
Calculating dB
The formula for calculating dB is as follows:
dB = 10 log10 (Pfinal/Pref)
dB = The amount of decibels.
This usually represents:
a loss in power such as when the wave travels or
interacts with matter,
can also represent a gain as when traveling
through an amplifier.
Pfinal = The final power. This is the delivered power
after some process has occurred.
Pref = The reference power. This is the original power.

Logarithms Just another way of

expressing powers (10n) - FYI
x = ay
loga x = y

Example: 100 = 102

This is equivalent to saying that the base-10 logarithm of 100 is 2; that is:
100 = 102 same as log10 100 = 2

Example 2: 1000 = 103 is the same as: log10 1000 = 3

Notes:
With base-10 logarithms, the subscript 10 is often omitted;
log 100 = 2 same as log 1000 = 3
When the base-10 logarithm of a quantity increases by 1, the quantity itself
increases by a factor of 10, ie. 2 to 3 increases the quantity 100 to 1000.
A 10-to-1 change in the size of a quantity, resulting in a logarithmic increase
or decrease of 1, is called an order of magnitude.
Thus, 1000 is one order of magnitude larger than 100.

Decibels

There are also some general rules for approximating the

dB and power relationship:
+3 dB = Double the power
-3 dB = Half the power
+10 dB = Ten times the power
-10 dB = One-tenth the power

Decibel references
WLANs work in
milliwatts or 1/1,000th of
a Watt

dB has no particular defined reference

Most common reference when working with WLANs is:
dBm
m = milliwatt or 1/1,000th of a watt
1,000 mW = 1 W (Watt)
Milliwatt = .001 Watt or 1/1,000th of a watt
Since the dBm has a defined reference, it can also be converted back
to watts, if desired.
The power gain or loss in a signal is determined by comparing it
to this fixed reference point, the milliwatt.

Decibel references

Example:
1 mW = .001 Watts
Using 1 mW as our reference we start at: 0 dB
Using the dB formula:
Doubling the milliwatts to 2 mW or .002 Watts we get +3 dBm
+10 dBm is 10 times the original 1 mW value or 10 mW
+20 dBm is 100 times the original 1 mW value or 100 mW

Ref.

dB milliWatt (dBm) - This is the unit of measurement for signal

strength or power level. (milliwatt = 1,000th of a watt or 1/1,000 watt)

If the original signal was 1 mW and a device receives a signal at 1 mW,
this is a loss of 0 dBm.
However, if that same device receives a signal that is 0.001 milliwatt,
then a loss of 30 dBm occurs, or -30 dBm.
-n dBm is not a negative number, but a value between 0 and 1.
To reduce interference with others, the 802.11b WLAN power
levels are limited to the following:
36 dBm EIRP by the FCC (4 Watts)
20 dBm EIRP by ETSI

Interactive Activity Calculating decibels

End

Start
Change

+10 dBm

This activity allows the student to enter values for Power final and Power reference,
then calculates for decibels. Adding an antenna or other type of amplification.

RF Receivers
-90 dBm

End

Start
Change

Radio receivers are very sensitive to and may be able to

pick up signals as small as 0.000000001 mW or 90 dBm,
or a 1 billionth of a milliwatt or 0.000000000001 W.

Doubled the distance 10ft to 20ft,

but have the signal.
Signal strength decreased from
47dB to 53dB.
Decrease of 6dB
-3dB + -3dB = + =

Other decibel references besides mW

More on this
when we
discuss
antennas.

A simple decibel
conversion

If a signal experiences a gain of 4,000 (gets 4,000 times bigger), what

is the gain in dB?
4,000 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 2 x 2
Now replace the multiplication-of factors by the addition-of factors of
dB:
4,000 = 10 dB + 10 dB + 10 dB + 3 dB + 3 dB = 36 dB

If a signal experiences a gain of 4,000 (gets 4,000 times bigger), what

is the gain in dB? (Be creative!)
5,000 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 / 2
Now replace the multiplication-of factors by the addition-of factors of
dB and division by subtraction:
5,000 = 10 dB + 10 dB + 10 dB + 10 dB - 3 dB = 37 dB

ACU Status

Current Signal Strength

The Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) for received packets.
The range is 0% to 100%.
Current Signal Quality
The quality of the received signal for all received packets. The range is
from 0% to 100%.

Signal
Signal Strength

The signal strength for all received packets.

The higher the value and the more green the bar graph is, the stronger the
signal.
Differences in signal strength are indicated by the following colors: green
(strongest), yellow (middle of the range), and red (weakest).
Range: 0 to 100% or -95 to -45 dBm
Signal Quality
The signal quality for all received packets. The higher the value and the more
green the bar graph is, the clearer the signal.
Differences in signal quality are indicated by the following colors: green (highest
quality), yellow (average), and red (lowest quality).
Range: 0 to 100%
Overall Link Quality
Overall link quality depends on the Current Signal Strength and Current Signal
Quality values.
Excellent: Both values greater than 75%
Good: Both values greater than 40% but one (or both) less than 75%
Fair: Both values greater than 20% but one (or both) less than 40%
Poor: One or both values less than 20%

Signal

Signal Strength can also be seen in dBm

Noise Level

The level of background radio frequency energy in the 2.4-GHz band. The lower
the value and the more green the bar graph is, the less background noise
present.
Range: -100 to -45 dBm
Note This setting appears only if you selected signal strength to be displayed in
dBm.
Signal to Noise Ratio
The difference between the signal strength and the current noise level. The
higher the value, the better the client adapter's ability to communicate with the
access point.
Range: 0 to 90 dB
Note This setting appears only if you selected signal strength to be displayed in
dBm.

Signal

You will notice that the maximum Signal Strength is 45 dBm and
lowest Noise Level is 105 dBm.
Why these values?
This is beyond the scope of this curriculum but has to do with how
Radio Performance is measured.
The Cisco Press book, 802.11 Wireless LAN Fundamentals is a good
start for more information, but you will still need to do more research to
fully understand this.
See the white paper from WildPackets: Converting Signal Strength
Percentage to dBm Values.

Last note
As signal strength decreases, so will the transmission rate.
An 802.11b clients speed may drop from 11 Mbps to 5.5

Mbps, to 2 Mbps, or even 1 Mbps.

This can all be associated with a combination of factors
including:
Distance
Line of Sight
Obstructions
Reflection
Multpath Reflection
Refraction (partially blocked by obstruction)
Diffraction (bending of signal)
Noise and Interference