Bridge Engineering

-Planning of Bridges-

Bridge Planning
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Traffic Studies
Hydrotechnical Studies
Geotechnical Studies
Environmental Considerations
Alternatives for Bridge Type
Economic Feasibility
Bridge Selection and Detailed Design

1. Traffic Studies
r
Rive

City Center
New Road Link

Existing Network

City Center

Pasig River

New Bridge

Traffic Studies
Traffic studies need to be carried out to
ascertain the amount of traffic that will
utilize the New or Widened Bridge
This is needed to determine Economic
Feasibility of the Bridge
So, for this Services of a Transportation,
Planner and or Traffic Engineer are
Required
Such Studies are done with help of Traffic
Software such as TransCAD, EMME2 etc.

Traffic Studies
Traffic Studies should provide following
information:
Traffic on Bridge immediately after opening
To know the amount of traffic at various times during
life of the Bridge
Traffic Mix, (i.e. number of motorcars, buses, heavy
trucks and other vehicles)
Effect of the new link on existing road network
Predominant Origin and Destination of traffic that will
use the Bridge
Strategic importance of the new/improved Bridge

2. Hydrotechnical Studies
A thorough understanding of the river and
river history is crucial to planning of Bridge
over a river
Hydrotechnical Studies should include:
1.Topographic Survey 2km upstream and
2km downstream for small rivers including
Longitudinal section and X-sections
2. For big rivers 5kms U/S and 2kms D/S
should be surveyed
3. Navigational Requirements

Hydrotechnical Studies
a) Scale of the topographic map/Conduct
Topo-Survey
1:2000 for small rivers
1:5000 for large rivers

b) The High Flood Levels and the Observed

Flood Level should be indicated map
c) Sufficient Number of x-sections should be
taken and HFL and OFL marked on
them
d) River Bed surveying would require
soundings

Hydrotechnical Studies
e) Catchment Area Map
Scale recommended
1:50,000 or
1:25,000

f) All Reservoirs, Rain

Gauges Stns., River
Gauge Stns., should be
marked on map

Catchment of River Indus

Hydrotechnical Studies

River Catchment Boundaries with Tributaries

Hydrotechnical Studies

River Catchment Boundaries with Sub-Basin Boundaries

3. Hydrological Data
The Hydrological Data to be collected are:
1. Rainfall Data from Rain Gauge Stations
in the Catchment Area
2. Isohyetal Map of the Catchment Area
showing contours of Annual Rainfall
3. Hydrographs of Floods at River Gauge
Stations
4. Flow Velocities
5. Sediment Load in River Flow during
floods

Hydrologic Data

Example of an ISOHYETAL MAP

Hydrologic Data

Example of River Hydrograph

Hydrologic Data

Example of a River Hydrograph

Design Flood Levels

AASHTO Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating
Design Flood Levels

Design Flood Levels

AASHTO Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating
Design Flood Levels

Design Flood Levels

CANADIAN MINISTRY OF TRANSPORTATION

Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating Design Flood Levels

Design Flood Levels

CANADIAN MINISTRY OF TRANSPORTATION

Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating Design Flood Levels

Design Flood Levels

FREEBOARD REQUIREMENTS

CANADIAN MINISTRY OF TRANSPORTATION

Gives Following Guidelines for Estimating Freeboard Requirements

Estimating Design Flood

Flood Peak Discharge at Stream or River Location
Depends upon:
1. Catchment Area Characteristics
Size and shape of catchment area
Nature of catchment soil and vegetation
Elevation differences in catchment and between catchment
and bridge site location

2. Rainfall Climatic Characteristics

Rainfall intensity duration and its spatial distribution

3. Stream/River Characteristics
Slope of the river
River bed flow in the river
River Facilities/ Dams on the river

Methods of Estimating Design Flood

1. Empirical Methods
2. Flood Frequency Analysis
3. Rational Method

Rational Method of Peak Flood Estimation

Attempts to give estimate of Design Discharge
taking into account:
The Catchment Characteristics
Rainfall Intensity
Discharge Characteristics of the Catchment

Q C IT A
Q = Design Discharge
IT = Average rainfall intensity (in/hr) for some recurrence interval, T
during that period of time equal to Tc.
Tc = Time of Concentration
A = Area of the catchment in Sq. miles
C = Runoff coefficient; fraction of runoff, expressed as a
dimensionless decimal fraction, that appears as surface runoff
from the contributing drainage area.

Rational Method of Peak Flood Estimation

Time of Concentration can be estimated using
Barnsby Williams Formula which is widely used
by US Highway Engineers
0.9 L
Tc 0.1 0.2
A S
L = Length of Stream in Miles
A = Area of the catchment in Sq. miles
S = Average grade from source to site in percent

Rational Formula Runoff Coefficient

Area Characteristic

Run-off Coefficient C

Steep Bare Rock

0.90

Steep Rock with Woods

0.80

Plateau with light cover

0.70

Densely built-up areas

0.90 0.70

Residential areas

0.70 0.50

Stiff Clayey soils

0.50

Loam

0.40 0.30

Suburbs with gardens

0.30

Sandy soils

0.1 0.20

Jungle area

0.10 0.25

Parks, Lawns, Fields

0.25 - 0.50

4. Geotechnical Studies
Geotechnical Studies should provide the
following Information:
1.The types of Rocks, Dips, Faults and
Fissures
2. Subsoil Ground Water Level, Quality,
Artesian Conditions if any
3. Location and extent of soft layers
4. Identification of hard bearing strata
5. Physical properties of soil layers

Geotechnical Studies
Example: Cross section of the Kansas River, west of Silver Lake, Kansas

Typical Borehole

Environmental Considerations
1. Impact on Following Features of Environment need to
considered:
River Ecology which includes:
Marine Life
Wildlife along river banks
Riverbed
Flora and fauna along river banks
2. Impact upon dwellings along the river if any
3. Impact upon urban environment if the bridge in an
urban area

Bridge Economic Feasibility

Bridge Economic Feasibility

1. Economic Analysis is required at
Feasibility Stage to justify expenditures of
public or private funds
2. A Bridge is the most expensive part of a
road transportation network
3. Types of Economic Analyses
a) Cost Benefit Ratio Analysis
b) Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Analysis

Construction
Stage

Project Start
Date

Benefits Stream

Project Life
End Project
Life

Salvage
Value

Costs Stream

Bridge Economic Analysis/

Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)

n-years
Design Life

Project Cost Benefit Analysis

The objective of LCCA is to

Estimate the costs associated with the Project during

Construction an its service life. These include routine
maintenance costs + Major Rehab Costs
Estimate the Benefits that will accrue from the Project including
time savings to road users, benefits to business activities etc.
Bring down the costs and benefits to a common reference pt. in
time i.e. just prior to start of project (decision making time)
Facilitate decision making about economic feasibility by
calculating quantifiable yardsticks such as Benefit to Cost Ratio
(BCR) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
Note: Salvage Value may be taken as a Benefit
This includes cost of the Right-of-Way and substructure

What is Life Cycle Cost?

An economic analysis procedure that uses
engineering inputs
Compares competing alternatives
considering all significant costs
Expresses results in equivalent dollars
(present worth)

Time Period of Analysis

Normally equal for all alternatives
Should include at least one major
rehabilitation
Needed to capture the true economic
benefit of each alternative
Bridge design today is based on a
probabilistic model of 100 years

End
Project
Life

Project Life

Salvage
Value

Construction
Stage

n-years
Design Life

Project
Start Date

Problem:

Benefits Stream

Costs Stream

Bridge Economic Analysis/

Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)

Costs and Benefits Change over the life of the Project

Amount of Money/Benefit accrued some time in future is worth less in

terms of Todays money
Same is the case with the benefits accrued over time
The Problem now is as to How to find the Worth of a Financial Amount in
Future in terms of Todays Money
This is accomplished by using the instrument of DISCOUNT RATE

Bridge Economic Analysis/

Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)
DISCOUNT RATE:
The annual effective discount rate is the annual interest divided by the capital
including that interest, which is the interest rate divided by 100% plus the
interest rate. It is the annual discount factor to be applied to the future cash
flow, to find the discount, subtracted from a future value to find the value
one year earlier.
For example, suppose there is an investment made of $95 and pays $100 in a
year's time. The discount rate according the given definition is:

100 95
Discount Rate d
5.0%
100

Interest Rate is calculated as $ 95 as Base

100 95
Interest Rate i
5.26%
95
Interest Rate and Discount Rate are Related as Follows

i
Discount Rate d
i i2
1i

Discount Rate
Thus Discount Rate is that rate which can be
used to obtain the Present Value of Money that
is spent or collected in future
Cost/ Benefit Projected
Cn
Co

Project
Start Date

Benefits
Stream

Costs
Stream

Backward
Year n
Time

Bo
Bn
Project
Life

Net Present value of Cost incurred = Co = (1 - d)n Cn

In Year n
Net Present value of Cost incurred = Bo = (1 - d)n Bn
In Year n

What Discount Rate to Use?

A first estimate of appropriate Discount rate
can be made as follows:
Estimate of
Discount Rate = World Bank Lending Rate Average Long-term Inflation Rate
Note: By subtracting the Inflation Rate in arriving at a Discount Rate the
effect of Inflation can be removed from consideration during
Economic Analysis
The Discount Rate after subtracting the Inflation Rate is also
Referred to as the Real Discount Rate
Govt. of Philippines uses a Discount Rate of 6-8% for
economic analysis
Asian Development Bank uses a Discount rate of 12% for
evaluation of projects
Discount Rate is less than the Real interest Rate as Governments
do not take a purely commercial view of an infrastructure project

Cost Considerations

Costs

Present Worth

Initial Cost
Rehabilitation Cost

Salvag
e Costs
Maintenance and
Inspection
Cost

Years
Salvag
e Value

Cost Benefit Ratio

Formula for Cost
Benefit Ratio
L

Benefit To Cost Ratio = Present Value of Benefits

Present Value of Costs

(1 d )
0
L

(1 d )
0

Where L = Life Span of the Project in Years

d = Discount Rate
Bn = Benefit in year n
Cn = Cost incurred in year n

Bn

Cn

Net Present Worth/ Value

Net Present Worth/ Value = NPW or NPV
is defined as follows:
NPW = NPV = Present Value of Benefits Present Value of Costs
Note: If a Number of alternatives are being compared, the alternative
that has the highest Net Present Worth is the preferable one and
will also have the higher Benefit to Cost Ratio

What is Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

IRR may be defined as that Discount Rate
at which the Benefit to Cost Ratio (BCR)
of a Project becomes exactly 1.0
It is a better measure of economic viability
of a project compared to Benefit to Cost
Ratio
It is a good indicator of how much inflation
increase and interest rate hike a project
can tolerate and still be viable

Present Worth Factor

pwf (1 d )

pwf = Present Worth Factor for discount rate d

and year n
d
= Discount rate
n
= Number of year when the cost/ benefit will
occur
Alternate Formula (Usually Adopted)

1
pwf
n
1 d

Present Worth Analysis

Discounts all future costs and benefits to the
present:
t=L

PW = FC +
t=0

PW
FC
t
MC
IC
FRC
UC
S
pwf

pwf [MC+IC+FRC+UC] + pwf [S]

= Present Worth/ Value of the Project

= First (Initial) Cost
= Time Period of Analysis (ranges from 0 L)
= Maintenance Costs
= Inspection Costs
= Future Rehabilitation Costs
= Users Costs
= Salvage Values or Costs
= Present Worth Factor

Time Period of Analysis

Normally equal for all alternatives
Should include at least one major rehabilitation
Needed to capture the true economic benefit of each
alternative
Bridge design today is based on a probabilistic model of
100 years

Maintenance Costs
Annual cost associated with the upkeep of the
structure
Information is difficult to obtain for a given
project
Cost varies on the basis of size of the structure
(sqft)
Best Guess Values
Frequency/ Annum
Concrete = 0.05 % of Initial Cost
Structural Steel=0.05 % of Initial Cost

Inspection Costs
Should be taken for all alternatives preferably
every two years
Cost varies on the basis of size of the structure
(sqft) and by construction material
Best Guess Values
Frequency - Biannual
Concrete= 0.15 % of Initial Cost
Structural Steel= 0.20 % of Initial Cost

Future Painting Costs

Only applies to structural steel structures
Should occur every 20 years
Cost varies on the basis of size of the structure
(sqft)
Best Guess Values
Frequency every 20 years
Concrete
= 0.0 % of Initial Cost
Structural Steel = 7.0 % of Initial Cost

Future Rehabilitation Costs

The frequency is not only a function of time but also the
growing traffic volume and the structural beam system
Cost varies on the basis of size of the structure (sqft) and
structural beam system
Best Guess Values
Frequency
First occurrence Concrete 40 years
First occurrence Structural Steel 35 years
Annual traffic growth rate .75 % (shortens rehab
cycles)
Concrete =
20.0 % of Initial Cost
Structural Steel =
22.0 % of Initial Cost

Salvage Value/Costs
Occurs once at end of life of structure
Difference between
Removal cost
Salvage value
Best Guess Values
Removal cost 10 % of Initial Cost
Salvage Value Concrete - 0 % of Initial Cost
Salvage Value Structural Steel - 2 % of Initial Cost

Benefits from a Bridge

Monetary Benefits
Time savings to road users
Growth in economic activity
Saving of Vehicular wear and tear
Reduction of accidents if applicable

Example of Economic Analysis

Carry out an Economic Analysis of a Proposed Bridge given the following Data:
Estimated Average Annualized Daily Traffic is
With the Following Mix of Traffic
Cars
Trucks
Buses
Assume that the Traffic Growth Rate
is Geometric over the
Life Span of the Bridge
Bridge Life Span
The Construction Cost is
spread over 2 years
The Trade and economic benefits are
estimated to be
Annual Growth Rate of Trade Benefits
is Geometric at the rate of over the
Life Span of the Bridge
The Bridge would Result in Time Saving of
to Road Users
Average Time Value of Single Road User

12,000 Vehicles per Day

=
=
=
=

10,000
1,000
1,000
1.2 %

=
=
=
=

=
=

80 years
200.0 Million Rs.
10.0 Million Rs. per year
2.0 %

1 hour
50.0 Rs. Per Hour

Example of Economic Analysis

Assume that the Bridge would require:
Annual Maintenance
Major Rehabilitation after every 30 years
Salvage Value of Piers and Abutments
Salvage Cost is assumed to be
Average Occupancy Of a Single Car
Average Occupancy Of a Single Truck
Average Occupancy Of a Single Bus

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Calculate the Present Worth, Net Present Worth,

Benefit to Cost Ratio of the Bridge at Discount Rate

Calculate the Internal Rate of Return of the Bridge

0.03 % of Construction Cost

20.0 % of Construction Cost
25 % of Construction Cost
0.0 %
3.0 Passengers
2.0 Passengers
50 Passengers

6.0 %

Example of Economic Analysis

Example of Economic Analysis

Example of Economic Analysis

2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
2043
2044
2045
2046
2047
2048
2049
2050
2051
2052
2053
2054
2055
2056
2057
2058
2059
2060

17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

0.3493
0.3283
0.3086
0.2901
0.2727
0.2563
0.2410
0.2265
0.2129
0.2001
0.1881
0.1768
0.1662
0.1563
0.1469
0.1381
0.1298
0.1220
0.1147
0.1078
0.1013
0.0952
0.0895
0.0842
0.0791
0.0744
0.0699
0.0657
0.0618
0.0581
0.0546
0.0513
0.0482
0.0453

60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000

40,000,000

60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
40,060,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000

4,838,000
4,887,200
4,936,400
4,985,600
5,034,800
5,084,000
5,133,200
5,182,400
5,231,600
5,280,800
5,330,000
5,379,200
5,428,400
5,477,600
5,526,800
5,576,000
5,625,200
5,674,400
5,723,600
5,772,800
5,822,000
5,871,200
5,920,400
5,969,600
6,018,800
6,068,000
6,117,200
6,166,400
6,215,600
6,264,800
6,314,000
6,363,200
6,412,400
6,461,600

13,000,000
13,200,000
13,400,000
13,600,000
13,800,000
14,000,000
14,200,000
14,400,000
14,600,000
14,800,000
15,000,000
15,200,000
15,400,000
15,600,000
15,800,000
16,000,000
16,200,000
16,400,000
16,600,000
16,800,000
17,000,000
17,200,000
17,400,000
17,600,000
17,800,000
18,000,000
18,200,000
18,400,000
18,600,000
18,800,000
19,000,000
19,200,000
19,400,000
19,600,000

17,838,000
18,087,200
18,336,400
18,585,600
18,834,800
19,084,000
19,333,200
19,582,400
19,831,600
20,080,800
20,330,000
20,579,200
20,828,400
21,077,600
21,326,800
21,576,000
21,825,200
22,074,400
22,323,600
22,572,800
22,822,000
23,071,200
23,320,400
23,569,600
23,818,800
24,068,000
24,317,200
24,566,400
24,815,600
25,064,800
25,314,000
25,563,200
25,812,400
26,061,600

20,957
19,699
18,517
17,406
16,362
15,380
14,457
13,590
12,775
12,008
11,288
10,610
9,974
6,259,600
8,813
8,284
7,787
7,320
6,881
6,468
6,080
5,715
5,372
5,050
4,747
4,462
4,194
3,943
3,706
3,484
3,275
3,078
2,893
2,720

6,230,454
5,938,445
5,659,047
5,391,799
5,136,247
4,891,952
4,658,482
4,435,416
4,222,349
4,018,882
3,824,630
3,639,221
3,462,292
3,293,493
3,132,486
2,978,943
2,832,549
2,692,997
2,559,995
2,433,258
2,312,514
2,197,499
2,087,961
1,983,656
1,884,351
1,789,822
1,699,853
1,614,236
1,532,774
1,455,276
1,381,560
1,311,451
1,244,782
1,181,391

17,778,000
18,027,200
18,276,400
18,525,600
18,774,800
19,024,000
19,273,200
19,522,400
19,771,600
20,020,800
20,270,000
20,519,200
20,768,400
(18,982,400)
21,266,800
21,516,000
21,765,200
22,014,400
22,263,600
22,512,800
22,762,000
23,011,200
23,260,400
23,509,600
23,758,800
24,008,000
24,257,200
24,506,400
24,755,600
25,004,800
25,254,000
25,503,200
25,752,400
26,001,600

Example of Economic Analysis

2061
2062
2063
2064
2065
2066
2067
2068
2069
2070
2071
2072
2073
2074
2075
2076
2077
2078
2079
2080
2081
2082
2083
2084
2085
2086
2087
2088
2089
2090
2091
Total

51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81

0.0426
0.0401
0.0377
0.0354
0.0333
0.0313
0.0294
0.0276
0.0260
0.0244
0.0230
0.0216
0.0203
0.0191
0.0179
0.0168
0.0158
0.0149
0.0140
0.0132
0.0124
0.0116
0.0109
0.0103
0.0097
0.0091
0.0085
0.0080
0.0075
0.0071
0.0067

60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000

40,000,000

Total Discounted Costs

Total Discounted Benefits
Present Worth
Net Present Worth

=
=
=
=

Benefit to Cost Ratio

Internal Rate of Return (IRR) =

60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
40,060,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000

6,510,800
6,560,000
6,609,200
6,658,400
6,707,600
6,756,800
6,806,000
6,855,200
6,904,400
6,953,600
7,002,800
7,052,000
7,101,200
7,150,400
7,199,600
7,248,800
7,298,000
7,347,200
7,396,400
7,445,600
7,494,800
7,544,000
7,593,200
7,642,400
7,691,600
7,740,800
7,790,000
7,839,200
7,888,400
7,937,600
7,986,800

19,800,000
20,000,000
20,200,000
20,400,000
20,600,000
20,800,000
21,000,000
21,200,000
21,400,000
21,600,000
21,800,000
22,000,000
22,200,000
22,400,000
22,600,000
22,800,000
23,000,000
23,200,000
23,400,000
23,600,000
23,800,000
24,000,000
24,200,000
24,400,000
24,600,000
24,800,000
25,000,000
25,200,000
25,400,000
25,600,000
25,800,000

202,104,198
261,516,182
202,104,198
59,411,984
1.294
8.028%

Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.

50,000,000

26,310,800
26,560,000
26,809,200
27,058,400
27,307,600
27,556,800
27,806,000
28,055,200
28,304,400
28,553,600
28,802,800
29,052,000
29,301,200
29,550,400
29,799,600
30,048,800
30,298,000
30,547,200
30,796,400
31,045,600
31,294,800
31,544,000
31,793,200
32,042,400
32,291,600
32,540,800
32,790,000
33,039,200
33,288,400
33,537,600
83,786,800

2,557
2,403
2,259
2,124
1,996
1,876
1,764
1,658
1,558
978,098
1,377
1,294
1,217
1,144
1,075
1,011
950
893
839
789
742
697
655
616
579
544
512
481
452
425
399
202,104,198

1,121,126
1,063,840
1,009,393
957,649
908,480
861,764
817,384
775,227
735,186
697,159
661,049
626,762
594,210
563,308
533,975
506,134
479,712
454,638
430,846
408,272
386,856
366,541
347,270
328,993
311,658
295,220
279,632
264,851
250,838
237,553
557,868
261,516,182

26,250,800
26,500,000
26,749,200
26,998,400
27,247,600
27,496,800
27,746,000
27,995,200
28,244,400
(11,506,400)
28,742,800
28,992,000
29,241,200
29,490,400
29,739,600
29,988,800
30,238,000
30,487,200
30,736,400
30,985,600
31,234,800
31,484,000
31,733,200
31,982,400
32,231,600
32,480,800
32,730,000
32,979,200
33,228,400
33,477,600
83,726,800