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ME0005 : Design For

Manufacture &
Assembly
Introduction To DFM
Factors influencing the
choice of :
- Material
- Manufacturing

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

(i)Properties
(ii)Quantity required
(iii)Form
(iv)Delivery date /PDC
(v)Size

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
(contd..)

(vi)Material availability
(vii)Manufacture
(viii)Scrap utilization
(ix)Cost

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
(i) Properties
Service life
Mechanical loading
Freedom from noise
Climatic environment
Reliability
Chemical environment
Material standards
Quality of surface finish

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Properties of Materials

Physical
Mechanical
Specific heat Specific gravity
Melting point Tensile strength
Thermal
Compressive
conductivity strength
Coefficient of Shear strength
thermal
expansion
Bending
strength
Electrical
Fatigue
conductivity properties
Intensity of
Torsional
magnetstrength
ization
Buckling
strength
Saturation
Elastic limit
Remanence
Modulus of
elasticity
Coercive
Impact test
force
figures
Permeability Coefficient of
expansion
Hardness
High
temperature

Technological
Castability
forgeability

Chemical
Resistance to:
Acids
Bases

Capacity for
being rolled

Oxidation

Deep drawing

Water

capacity

Oil

Machinability

Greases

Weldability

Petrol

Suitability for
Brazing

Soap solutions

Shrinkage
Surface properties

Electrolytic cell
formation

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Frame for a small appliance
Materials suitable are cast iron,
steel, bronze, red brass, brass,
an aluminium or magnesium
alloy, a zinc alloy, moulded
plastics, or even ceramics.
Choice of material will depend on
the other factors considered.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Weight of a product
Requirement for lighter
product than the one by a
standard type of construction.
Not necessary by using lower
specific gravity material.
Lighter product realizable by
lightweight construction

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Coefficients of friction
Wear
Corrosion Resistance
Thermal
Characteristics.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Cast iron is characterized by


the fact that growth " sets in
at temperatures above 300C.
Machine casings exposed to
temperatures exceeding 300C
are therefore made of cast
steel which does not exhibit
this particular behaviour.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Product for a long service life


meet this demand by sizing
to give reduced loading.
Other characteristics having
effect on the life of individual
components
resistance to thermal effect
chemical effects
wear.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Where service life is subject


to special agreement,
select the materials so that
all parts remain in service
for an equal length of time
without requiring to be
replaced.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

When Basic design is a


schematic drawing
not possible to predict type of
material to be used.

For lattice-type structures, and


for rods and levers of large
sizes, Cast Iron cannot be used.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Castings are preferred for


complicated parts
if the material chosen are
castable.
Or else, very complex
components can be
fabricated by welding.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

There are other factors


which affect the choice of
material. Only by
considering all the
demands, including those
involving other factors, can
the final decision be taken.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Size.Large machine frames are fabricated


in steel by welding. On the other hand, cast
iron also is used for machine frames ranging
from the largest and heaviest types (e.g. top
and bottom sections of turbine casings
weighing some 500 kNewtons) down to
castings used in the manufacture of small
machines and weighing only a few Newtons.
i.e. Size alone does not decisively affect the
choice of material used.

Factors influencing the


choice of
Material

Manufacture. Special
circumstances, or the need for lowest
possible manufacturing cost, dictate
choice of material, a specific
manufacturing method goes with it.
Surface qualities obtainable through
additional finishing operations or by
suitable coating substances may
demand the use of special materials.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Cost.In all design work cost


plays a vital role. The main item
is material cost which depends
on material availability.
The minimum necessary data of
comparative prices will help in
qualitative view when choosing
materials and accurately
calculate the material cost.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Quantity required.The
customer always indicates
the quantity of items
required.
This data helps in
eliminating some of the
possible (alternative)
materials.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Eg: If the requirement is


for five units, it will not be
practical to cast them, if
the design is a new one
Instead, the designer may
consider using steel
fabricated economically by
welding or hand forging

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Delivery date. Similar


considerations influence the
choice of material.
A very early delivery date will
often preclude manufacture in
castable materials, and instead
the designer will consider using
steel.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Material availability.For
economic or political
reasons it may be difficult
or impossible to procure
certain materials.
Look for other alternate
material which may not
always be a perfect
substitute

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Another difficulty is the


long delay and uncertainty
affecting incoming
supplies of materials (lead
time)
This often makes it hard to
keep to the committed
delivery date (PDC)

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Requirements regarding
materials are stated in the
problem as presented to the
designer.
The designer himself is
therefore responsible for
listing all those factors
deriving from the customer's
requirements which determine
the choice of material.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Eg: An out door unit exposed to all


weather conditions will need to be
resistant to atmospheric corrosion.
If there is a possibility of
mechanical damage through
impact or shock, then the material
chosen must satisfy certain
conditions in regard to impact
strength, notch toughness, and
elongation.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Many of the mechanical


requirements only manifest
themselves at the design stage,
and this applies to the various
strength values ascertained by
analysis of the forces involved.
Before listing the different
factors affecting choice of
material, all technical aspects
should be thoroughly studied.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
It is often possible for a component
to be made in a very wide variety of
materials.
A simple bracket, for example, can
be made in cast iron, cast steel,
malleable iron, steel either forged
or welded, red brass, or aluminium
alloy.
Admittedly some of these materials
will be dismissed as unsuitable

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

The material most


suited to the purpose
will be chosen, as a first
approximation, by using
the evaluation plan

Cast Cast Malleab


Plasti
Alumini
le
cs
um
Material iron steel iron
Ste Re
et
el d
c

Evaluation plan
Mechanical
strength
Resistance
to
climatic
effects
Notch
toughness
Elongation
etc.

bra
ss

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Design problem runs like this:
A bracket is required which can
be fitted to a tank standing in
the open. In more detail, the
following requirements have to
be met:
Functions: The device in question
is needed to support a shaft of
15mm diameter.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Mechanical environmental
conditions:
150 mm projection, mounting
surface flat
and at any height.
Mechanical stressing: Small forces
involved, but possibility of damage.
Chemical environmental conditions:
Exposed, outdoor location.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Service life: 10 years.
Maintenance: None. Appearance:
Smooth rounded shape. Weight:
Unimportant. Quantity required:
20. Delivery: 3 weeks. Cost of
manufacture: As low as possible.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
The short list of possible materials
includes only cast iron, malleable iron,
and steel.
Cast steel is too good for the purpose,
and red brass and the aluminium
alloys are too expensive. Moulded
plastic materials are unsuitable owing
to exposure to climatic effects.
We therefore arrive at the evaluation
given below

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
For the evaluation of merit on a
points basis we will adopt for the
present purpose a scale giving a
finer gradation.
Very suitable
7 to 9 points
Quite suitable 4 to 6 points
Limited suitability 1 to 3 points
Unsuitable 0 points

Evaluation plan

Material

Mechanical strength
Resistance to
climatic
effects
Service life
Appearance
Manufacturing Cost

Number of points

Cast
iron

Mallea
ble
iron

Steel

Ideal

9
9
3

9
9
2

9
7
6

9
9

35

33

35

45

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

This plan shows the cast-iron


and welded-steel versions to
be equal in merit.
Since the factor of
mechanical stressing is
negligible, we will assume
that ordinary engineering
steel is preferable.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

The lower manufacturing


cost of the steel version has
already been brought out in
the evaluation plan. The
detailed estimate shown in
fig. confirms this
assumption.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Selection of the right material,
however, is not always as simple
as in the example just considered.
If the primary selection given by
the evaluation plan suggests steel
as the most advantageous
material, the designer has still to
decide which is the most suitable
grade of steel.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Select the requisite details from :


Data sheets of material which
list the applications for various
grades.
Standard specifications
Manufacturers' product data
sheets
Material handbooks

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Cast Iron
Grey cast iron is adequate for
general engineering castings
Highly stressed machine
frames or cylinders
Chilled cast iron : acidresistant, alkali-resistant,
and heat-resistant

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

(a) Gray cast iron would be


the best choice for an engine
block because it is relatively
easy to cast, is wear
resistant, has good vibration
damping characteristics, and
is relatively inexpensive.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Cast steel
Greater mechanical strength
than ordinary cast iron or
malleable cast iron.
larger forces are involved

when casting offers advantages


over welding or forging
Can be alloyed for extreme
toughness, extreme hardness,
extreme wear-resistance

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Malleable cast iron


from white cast iron by annealing
commercial malleable cast iron,
high-grade white heart malleable
cast iron, and high-grade
blackheart malleable cast iron
strength figures are higher than
those of grey cast iron,
the advantage of ductility

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Iron castings with spheroidal


graphite
mechanical properties
approach those of mild steel.
Unalloyed steels : tensile
strengths up to 850 N/mm2
with satisfactory elongation

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Screws and bolts can be made in
high-tensile alloy steels
For ordinary structures in sheet
and plate such as tanks or air
receivers, wide range of structural
sheet and plate are available
Ordinary machinery steels are not
suitable for work entailing case
hardening and heat treatment

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
For larger forgings, alloy steels
are to be used, since the
unalloyed grades do not permit
sufficient through-hardening and
through-quenching and
tempering.
Steels having less than 0.2 % C
are used for exceptionally hard
surfaces

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Alloy steels
Using alloying elements such as
nickel, chromium, manganese,
tungsten, molybdenum, etc.,
the various properties of the
steels can be improved.
Are extra-high-strength steels
having high hardness but low
elongation and high notch
sensitivity

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Special importance is attached to
maximum tensile strength,
wear resistance, and
weldability.
The material selected must
satisfy these three requirements
without fail. If weldability is not
entirely satisfactory, then the
requirement is not fulfilled

Hardness
Elongatio
n
Tensile
strength
Corrosion
resistance
Wear
resistance
Temperat
ure
sensitivity
low
high
Weldabilit
Requirement
Diagram showing utilization of given properties of a material
y

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Problem of material selection
permits only an approximate
solution or a compromise
The criterion for the final decision
is that the steel selected should
meet the critical requirements
Machinability and Cost are vital
considerations

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Alloy steels are standardized;


Effects of the various alloying
elements on the properties of steel
Carbon: With increasing carbon
content the tensile strength rises
from 300 to l000 N/mm2, the
elongation drops from 28% to 2%,
the hardness increases from 100 to
350 BHN, and weldability declines.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Stainless steel would be the


best choice for a heat
exchanger to condense
steam because it is corrosion
resistant to the steam and
condensate.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Titanium alloys are the best


choice for high-speed aircraft
jet engine turbofan blades
because they are light
weight, strong, and easily
fabricated very resistant to
corrosion. However, one
drawback is their cost.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

A tool steel would be the


best choice for a drill bit
because it is very hard
retains its hardness at high
temperature and is wear
resistant, and, thus, will
retain a sharp cutting edge.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

For a cryogenic (lowtemperature) container, an


aluminum alloy would be the
best choice; aluminum alloys
have an FCC crystal
structure, and therefore, are
ductile at very low
temperatures.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Platinum is the best choice


for high-temperature furnace
elements to be used in
oxidizing atmospheres
because it is very ductile, has
a relatively very high melting
temperature, and is highly
resistant to oxidation.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Silicon: Silicon gives dense


castings. With rising silicon
content the elastic limit is
raised, but forgeability and
weldability are reduced.
Manganese: Manganese has
the primary effect of
increasing wear resistance.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Chromium: Chromium
increases the tensile
strength, elongation, and
hardness. Chrome steels are
rust-resistant and highly
heat-resistant.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Nickel: The addition of nickel


improves tensile strength
and elongation. Nickel steels
are rust-resistant and highly
heat-resistant; they are
frequently used in
conjunction with chromium
to give chrome-nickel steels.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Molybdenum: Molybdenum
increases strength at elevated
temperatures, makes for better
through quenching and
tempering, and eliminates
temper-brittleness.
Phosphorus: Phosphorus
improves strength, but reduces
elongation and impact strength

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Tungsten: Tungsten acts to


increase hardness.
Copper: Copper improves rust
resistance.
Aluminium: Aluminium steels
are suitable for nitriding.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

By suitably alloying certain


properties can be brought
into special prominence.
The following distinctions can
be made, for example:
High-strength steels: Cr-,
CrNiMo-, Mn- and MnSi-steels.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Highly heat-resistant steels:


Cr-steels.
Wear-resistant steels: Mn-,
MnMo-steels and CrMoWsteels.
Rust-resistant steels: Cr-,
CrNi-, CrMo-steels and the
copper-containing steels.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Non-ferrous metals
The non-ferrous metals of primary
importance in mechanical
engineering are the following
alloys:
Copper-zinc alloys (brass) Coppertin alloys (bronzes, red brass)
Aluminium alloys Manganese
alloys

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Brass
The brasses offer a series of useful
qualities. For fittings and small
housings good use can be made of
the cast alloys.
The special grades can even be
used for fairly high-stressed
components.
The hardness, too, is considerable.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Brass (contd)
A further advantage is the
resistance offered to corrosion.
Strength is not high at elevated
temperatures, however.
Temperatures of 200 C should
generally not be exceeded.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

The wrought alloys are suitable


for hot pressing, forging,
bending, and cold rolling.
Select available grades offering
good mechanical properties
such as high strength,
elongation, and hardness.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Copper-tin alloys.The bronzes


and red brass are widely used
in mechanical engineering.
Tensile strength is not high;
suitable for mechanical
engineering purposes and for
the construction of process
plant and fittings.

Factors influencing the choice


of Material
These alloys have good
running properties as bearing
materials under conditions of
high surface loading.
They are corrosion-resistant.
On the other hand, they are
sensitive to temperatures
above 200-250 C.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Through the addition of aluminium,


bronzes acquire very favourable
properties.
Mechanical strength and resistance to
chemical attack are markedly increased
Can be used for severely stressed parts
like gears and worm wheels.
The aluminium bronzes are not very
suitable for bearings, and certainly not
for bearings involving high surface
loading.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Lead bronzes.Lead bronzes are


primarily used for heavily loaded
bearings and bushes.
They are suitable for the heaviest
loadings up to 350 atmospheres at high
velocities of sliding.
The only disadvantage with lead bronze
is that it has no running-in capacity and
is very sensitive to misalignment.
Bearings made of this special alloy
must therefore be diamond-bored with
the utmost accuracy.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Aluminium alloys.In a variety of
alloyed forms aluminium has had
imparted to it very useful
properties and hence has become
an indispensible material in
modern mechanical engineering.
Aluminium alloys having strength
properties equal to those of
ordinary structural steels are
available.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

These alloys have good


corrosion resistance and
fatigue strength.
Low specific gravity of
aluminium alloys make them
suitable choice wherever
large inertia forces are
involved.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

These alloys can be worked


hot and cold, they can be
cast, forged, welded,
soldered, and bonded with
adhesives.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Designer should know exact


requirements to be met for
selection of the suitable
material.
Selection can be made from a
large number of rolled
sections, special sections,
tubes, and sheet.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Strength values depend on


the casting method used,
whether die casting or sand
casting
For wrought alloys are
concerned, on their condition,
whether soft, medium-hard,
or hard etc.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Range of special aluminium


alloys having properties
suitable for use as pistons,
as bearing material, for
pressure die-casting work
and for applications requiring
free-cutting properties

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Magnesium alloys.The magnesium
alloys have lower specific gravity
(1.8) than the aluminium alloys.
Can be usefully employed wherever
the maximum weight reduction is
a requirement.
Eg: automotive and aircraft
applications. These alloys are
available as cast and wrought
varieties.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Deformability in the cold condition is
limited, but satisfactory work can be
produced by forging and extruding at
300 C.
They are also readily castable.
Magnesium alloys show some
strength at high temperatures, but
they should not be exposed to
temperatures exceeding 200 C.
One disadvantage is that they corrode
easily. Hence must be protected by
painting, etc.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material
Wood.Wood has very attractive
properties. Compared with other
structural materials, it is easily
worked and comparatively cheap,
Disadvantages variable strength
and shrinkage ".
Wood is therefore unsuitable for
structures which have to be true
to size, and even for toleranced
components

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

Plastics. New plastics which


differ widely in their chemical
and mechanical behaviour.
Necessary knowledge from a
study of maker's catalogues.
In addition, detailed tables of
these materials in
engineering handbook

ME0005: Factors

influencing
the choice of Manufacturing

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing
Determination of the material to be
used also decides broadly the
manufacturing method.
Eg: If steel is selected, owing to
the very small quantity of
components required and to the
good mechanical properties, then
hammer forging or welding are
the automatic manufacturing
methods

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing

The manufacturing method is


strongly influenced both by the
material used and by the quantity
required.
The later stages in the processing
of the item will be determined by
its detailed design, appearance,
surface finish, availability of
machines, tools and equipment,
etc.

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing
Factors that may influence the
manufacturing Method :
Form

Jigs, fixtures, and tools


Material
Gauges
Appearance
Fits
Quality of surface finish

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing

Patents
Climatic influences
Quantity required
Available equipment
Cost
Delivery date
Overhaul

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing

Influence of the
manufacturing cost factor.
The economics of
manufacture determine the
course taken in the later
stages of a design.

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing
Avoid the following:
1.Heavy wastage of material
2.Re-clamping of work
3.Auxiliary equipment
4.Special-purpose tools
5.Change of machine

Factors influencing the choice of


manufacturing
Avoid the following
6. Expensive
machining
operations
7. Finishing operations
8. Rejects
9. Difficult assembly

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing
Interaction between the drawing
office and the production shops
needed.
The designer need to make
allowances for the work load on the
machine shop at any given time
Also the existing gauges, tools,
equipment, etc., should be taken
into consideration?

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing
Update knowledge of production
techniques - new methods.
New materials continually
being developed call for special
methods of working.

A few additional points..

Hardness
Elongation
Tensile
strength
Corrosion
resistance
Wear
resistance
Temperature
sensitivity
Weldability
high

low

Requirement
_________________Required performance, ---------------------- Actual performance

The systematic working plan when overall cost


conditions are not satisfied

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing
residual
stresses
Three sources
of residual stresses
in metal components are plastic
deformation processes, non-uniform
cooling of a component cooled from
an elevated temperature, and a
phase transformation in which
parent and product phases have
different densities.
Two adverse consequences of these
stresses are distortion (or warpage)
and fracture

Alloy

Yield Strength
[MPa ]

Density
(g/cm3)

Brass

415

8.5

Steel

860

7.9

Aluminum

310

2.7

Titanium

550

4.5

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing

Tin would almost always be


hot-worked. Even
deformation at room
temperature would be
considered hot-working
inasmuch as its
recrystallization temperature
is below room temperature .

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing

Tungsten is hard and strong at


room temperature, has a high
recrystallization temperature,
and experiences oxidation at
elevated temperatures. Coldworking is difficult because of
its strength, and hot-working is
not practical because of
oxidation problems.

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing

Most tungsten articles


are fabricated by
powder metallurgy, or
by using cold-working
followed by annealing
cycles.

Factors influencing the choice of


Manufacturing
Most aluminum alloys may be
cold-worked since they are
ductile and have relatively low
yield strengths.
Magnesium alloys are normally
hot-worked inasmuch as they are
quite brittle at room
temperature. Also, magnesium
alloys have relatively low
recrystallization temperatures.

Factors influencing the choice of


Material

A 4140 steel could be cold-worked


in an over-tempered state making
it soft and relatively ductile, after
which quenching and tempering
heat treatments may be employed
to strengthen and harden it.
This steel would probably have a
relatively high recrystallization
temperature, and hot-working
may cause oxidation.

*********

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