FLUID MECHANIC AND TURBINES I

am
F

air

e
l

nacelle
A

h
B vB

http://web.univ-ubs.fr/lg2m/PagesPerso/ausias/

Summary
1. Fundamentals
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Definitions
2. Fluid statics
2.1. Pressure at a point
2.2. Fundamental principle of fluid statics
2.3. Units and scales
2.4. Archimedes
2.5. Ideal gaz
2.6. Exercices
3. Internal flows Bernoulli laws
3.1. first Bernoulli law
3.2. Pressure head and piezometric head
3.3. second Bernoulli law
3.4. pressure drop
3.5. Euler equation
4. Extern flow aerodynamic and hydrodynamic
4.1. Lift and drag
4.2. Spheres et cylinders
4.3. Bodies with sharp edges

1. Fundamentals
1.1. Introduction

In Engineering
* aerodynamic - hydrodynamic
* flow in pipe
* material processing
We are interested in all movements of a large number of molecules,
considering that we are working on a continuous medium.
Everyone naturally distinguished by the sense of touch, three states of matter
states-solid, liquid and gaseous-each of which it associates for example rocky
shoreline, water waves and sea breeze.
In the deformation of a gas or liquid, the molecules do not keep permanent
place against each other: they undergo shifts during which they change their
neighbors. Instead, when a steel rod is subjected to bending or twisting the
atoms that constitute retain the same neighbors [9].
Fluid mechanics is the extension of rational mechanics to a class of continuous
media whose deformations can take values as large as you want [3].

Continuum mechanics
Elasticity
Solid mechanics

Continuum
mechanics
The study of
the physics
of continuous
materials

The study of the physics

of continuous materials
with a defined rest shape.

Fluid mechanics
The study of the physics
of continuous materials
which take the shape of
their container.

Describes materials that return to their

rest shape after an applied stress.

Plasticity
Describes materials
that permanently
deform after a
sufficient applied
stress.

Non-Newtonian
fluids

Newtonian fluids

Rheology
The study of
materials with
both solid and
fluid
characteristics.

Different fields of fluid mechanic

Simple fluids

No flow Fluid static

Fluid static

Material
processing

Simple flows

Complex flows

Complex fluids

Aerodynamic
hydrodynamic

1.2. Definitions
Density and specific gravity
d : specific gravity ()
m

d
: density (kg / m3)
V
1000 kg / m
3

m
V

and incompressible fluids

incompressible: no change in density

: elementary

mass (kg)
: elementary volume (m3)

: Compressible

= 0 = cte

liquid are usually considered as incompressible

except for natural convection,
in the plastics industry with high pressure
Temp (C)

The density of
water changes
with temperature

Density (kg/m)

Temp (C)

Density (kg/m)

+100

958.4

+20

998.2071

+80

971.8

+15

999.1026

+60

983.2

+10

999.7026

+40

992.2

+4

999.9720

+30

995.6502

999.8395

+25

997.0479

10

998.117

+22

997.7735

20

993.547

30

983.854

Perfect fluid : zero fluid viscosity (without internal friction)

Newtonian fluid : fluid whose viscosity is constant and equal to .
Laminar and turbulent flow
laminaire characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion
turbulent : chaotic eddies, vortices and other flow instabilities
Reynolds number :

Re

VD

V : fluid velocity
: fluid viscosity
: fluid density
D : characteristic dimension perpendicular to the flow
laminar :
Re < 2100
turbulent :
Re > 4000
transitional regime between the two : alternating turbulent and
laminar flow.
Steady and un steady flows
steady flow : variables describing the motion are independent of time.
Unidirectional flow

Variables depend only on one coordinate space.

Laminar and turbulent flow [10]

Stress and pressure

Consider a fluid volume V bounded by a surface S. The fluid outside [2] of volume V has on it
the tensions that are transmitted through the surface S. Suppose that the elementary force
exerted on S is proportional to S:

r r
F tS

r
r
F
t
lim
S
S 0

r
r
r
t tn n t s s
Pressure is called the normal stress

normal component: normal stress

tangential component: shear stress

In fluid statics, only involved the pressure

forces. The tangential forces appear only
in fluid dynamics for viscous fluids.

Viscosity
Suppose we shear a fluid between a fixed lower plate and an upper plate which moves at a speed V.
The dynamic viscosity is the ratio of shear stress on the shear rate

&

F

S

V
&
h

Dynamic viscosity of some

fluids [ 1]

2. Fluid statics
2.1. Pressure at a point

Pressure at a point in a fluid at rest

M is a point in a fluid at rest and an elementary surface S, with
n normal outgoing. The surface is small enough to consider that
the pressure is uniform on this surface. Whatever the
orientation of the surface S, the fluid exerts a pressure on the
surface P.

Pressure gradient
consider two points close to each other, M and M'
having pressure equal to :

pM p ( x , y , z )
pM ' p ( x dx, y dy , z dz )
dp pM ' pM
Differential of the function p :
p
p
dx

x y , z
y
uuuuuuu
u
r uuuuu
r
dp grad p .MM '
dp

x
uuuuuuu
u
r r
p
grad p =p
y

x, z

p
dy

dz
x, y

dx
uuuuu
r

MM ' dy
dz

Oxyz

x

M y
z

x dx

M ' y dy
z dz

z
M2

Applications difference of level

M1

Consider a vertical axis z directed upwards

0
r
g 0 g
1

uuuuur
MM '

0
r
g 0 g
1

dx

dy

dz

dp gdz

dx

uuuuuuu
r

M 1M 2
dy

dz z2 z1

dp gdz

0
dp / dz

uuuuuur
gradp

p2
p1

z2

dp gdz
z1

p2
p1

z2

dp g dz
z1

p2 p1 g ( z2 z1 ) gh

h : difference of level

2.2. Fundamental principle of fluid statics

The resulting pressure forces
The resulting pressure forces of a fluid on a
volume V of material is the same direction as the
vector and pressure gradient in opposite direction

r
r
F dV .p

Fundamental principle of fluid statics

If the fluid is in equilibrium, no friction force exists. The
volume element dV is subject to:

r
r
dmg f dVg
- Forces of gravity (weight):
uuuuuuu
u
r
r
- Pressure forces:
df grad p dV

z
dm
dV

F 0
uuuuuuu
u
r
r
grad p f g

grad p

x
(2)

2.2. Fundamental principle of fluid statics

The resulting pressure forces
The resulting pressure forces of a fluid on a
volume V of material is the same direction as the
vector and pressure gradient in opposite direction

r
r
F dV .p

Fundamental principle of fluid statics

If the fluid is in equilibrium, no friction force exists. The
volume element dV is subject to:

r
r
dmg f dVg
- Forces of gravity (weight):
uuuuuuu
u
r
r
- Pressure forces:
df grad p dV

z
dm
dV

F 0
uuuuuuu
u
r
r
grad p f g

grad p

x
(2)

Exemples
Calculation of vertical pressure gradient in the air at sea level
0 = 1,225 kg/m3 : density of air at sea level
grad p = 1,225 * 9,81 = 12,02 Pa/m = 0,0001202 bar/m
Calculation of vertical pressure gradient in water at sea level
grad p = 1000 * 9,81 = 9810 Pa/m = 0,0981 bar/m

Case of gaz
conventional atmosphere (aviation) : z = 0
P0
= 760 mm of mercury
= 101 325 Pa = 1,01 bar
T0
= 288 K = 15 C
0
= 1,225 kg/m3
Variation of pressure for a difference of level of 2.5 m
dp = -gdz
= -1,225 9,81 2,5
= -30 Pa
which is negligible compared to atmospheric pressure
It is therefore considered that the pressure in the air for several meters or tens
of meters high is the same.

The mercury
barometer

PB = atmospheric pressure

PA

h = 759 mm

= few Pascals

PA = saturated vapor
pressure of mercury

PB

Nearly equal to zero = 0 Pa

There is still the same fluid between B and C and the difference of level between B and C is
zero, so PB = PC = atmospheric pressure = 1013 hPa (conventional atmosphere used in
aircraft)
Specific gravity of mercury = 13,6
There are the same fluid between A and B
Pressure variation between A and B
dp = pB pA = 101300 Pa = Hggh
= 13600 9,81 h
h = 0,759 m = 759 mm
What is the height of mercury if the weather forecast announces a pressure of 1030 hPa ?
What height would have a water barometer ?

Pascal's principle
Static fluids in an incompressible fluid, the pressures are transmitted in full.
Example: hydraulic press, brake hydraulic

Absolute pressure and gauge pressure

In principle we use absolute pressures. But in
many areas were measured pressures
(pressures) from an original pressure. It
usually takes its origin in atmospheric
pressure (pa). Then measured effective
pressure (pe) pe = p - pa.

2.3. Units and scales

Absolute temperature (K : Kelvin)

0
100
200 300 400

Most gauges are graduated in industrial pe.

The zero corresponds to atmospheric
pressure.

273
-273

Temperature (C : Celcius)
0
100 200
300

Absolute pression (bar)

0
1

-1
vide

Effective pression (bar)

0
1

pression
atmosphrique

Units
* SI : Pascal (Pa)
= 1Newton / 1mtre
* multiples of Pascal : 1 bar = 100000 Pa,
* Meteorology : 1 mbar = 10 Pa = 1 hPa.
* kgf/cm
1 kgf/cm = 0.98 bar
* psi = pound per square inch
1 psi = 6.89 103 Pa
* 1 atm = 101325 Pa = 1013 mbar

r
F

2.4. Archimedes
F V grad p
uuuuuuu
u
r
r
grad p f g

(1)

object o
V

uuuuuuu
u
r
r
grad p f g

r
P

(2)

Theorem of Archimedes: an object with a

volume V completely surrounded by fluid
density
undergoes a vertical thrust F
equals the weight of the displaced
fluid.
ur
ur
F f V g

object weight :

fluid

ur
ur
P oV g

If the object is solid (the table) and

the fluid gas (air) then:
o 1000 f
a

In this case we can neglect the buoyancy to the

weight of the object

V2

ur
ur
ur
F eV1 g aV2 g
V1

: immersed volume

air

negligible

V1

solid

water

2.5. Ideal gaz

An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of a set of randomly-moving, non-interacting point
particles. The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law, a simplified
equation of state, and is amenable to analysis under statistical mechanics.

pV nRT
At normal conditions such as standard temperature and pressure, most real gases
behave qualitatively like an ideal gas. Many gases such as air, nitrogen, oxygen,
hydrogen, noble gases, and some heavier gases like carbon dioxide can be treated
like ideal gases within reasonable tolerances.

2.6. Exercices
Exercice 2.1. : tube en U
Un tube en U de section s = 1 cm2 est ouvert aux deux extrmits. Il contient de l'eau. D'un cot, on
verse 10 cm3 d'huile. La diffrence de niveau des surfaces libres est de 15 mm.
Quelle est la densit de l'huile ?
Exercice 2.2. : Gradients
Supposons que lair dans la classe est immobile et que sa temprature est plus basse prs du sol
(19,0 C) et plus leve prs du plafond (21,5 C) et que les isothermes sont des plans horizontaux.
Exprimer et calculer le gradient de temprature vertical (on prendra laxe z vertical dirig vers le
haut), puis horizontal. Prsenter le rsultat sous forme dun vecteur. Mme exercice pour les
gradients de pression dans lair de la classe (les isobares sont des plans horizontaux). Mme
exercice pour les gradients de pression dans une piscine de profondeur de 2,5 m. Quelle est la
pression absolue au fond de la piscine ?
Exercice 2.3. : Aquarium
Calculer les forces F1 et F2 qui s'exercent sur les parois d'un aquarium rempli d'eau.
A.N. : L = 150 cm, l = 75 cm, h = 60 cm.

F1

F2

Rponses
Exercice 2.1. : tube en U
Quelle est la densit de l'huile ? d = 0,75
Exercice 2.2. : Gradients
Exprimer et calculer le gradient de temprature vertical : 1 C/m
Exprimer et calculer le gradient de temprature horizontal : 0C/m
Prsenter le rsultat sous forme dun vecteur.
0
uuuuuuu
r
gradT 0 C / m
1

Les gradients de pression dans une piscine de profondeur de 2,5 m.

0
0
Pa / m
9810

uuuuuur
gradp

Quelle est la pression absolue au fond de la piscine : 101300 + 9810*2,5 = 125825 Pa = 1,26 bar
Exercice 2.3. : Aquarium
F1 = 1324 N
F2 = 2648 N

Exercice 2.4. : Porte dcluse

Une cluse contient de leau sur une hauteur h .
Elle est ferme par deux portes tournant autour
de deux axes verticaux. Calculer le couple
ncessaire exercer sur laxe pour maintenir la
porte ferme.

Axe
Axe
l

porte

Exercice 2.5. flotteur

Calculer lenfoncement
dun cube de bois de cot
a et de densit 0,9 dans
de leau douce, dans du
mercure de densit 13,6.

porte
h

am
air

nacell
e

Exercice 2.6. : Montgolfire

Une montgolfire a la forme d'une sphre, a un diamtre D = 20 m et
contient un air chaud de masse volumique am = 0,7 kg / m3. Sous la
montgolfire est suspendu une nacelle dans laquelle prend place l'quipage.
L'ensemble est arrim au sol et l'air qui entoure l'ensemble est dans les
conditions standards de l'air au niveau de la mer. La masse de la nacelle plus la
masse de l'enveloppe de la montgolfire est gale Pne = 117 kg. Pour calculer le
poids total de l'ensemble on ajoute le poids de l'air dans la montgolfire, le poids
de l'enveloppe, le poids de la nacelle et le poids de l'quipage.
a)Calculer la pousse d'Archimde subit par la montgolfire.
b)Calculer le poids maximum de l'quipage que peut emporter cette montgolfire
dans ces conditions.
c)Si l'quipage a une masse de 140 kg, calculer la force ascensionnelle applique
l'ensemble.
d)Calculer alors le temps ncessaire la montgolfire pour atteindre l'altitude de
100 m.
Figure:Montgolfire

Axe
Axe

Rponses
l
Exercice 2.4. : Porte dcluse
gh 2l 2
C
4

porte

porte
h

Exercice 2.5. flotteur

Calculer lenfoncement
dun cube de bois de
densit 0,9 dans de leau
douce,
H = 0,9 a
dans du mercure de
densit 13,6.
H = 0,074 a

3. Internal flows Bernoulli laws

3.1. first Bernoulli law
z

cote z1

dS1

dS1

dS2

dS2

ligne de
courant
pression p2

M2

M1

cote z2

P1
dm
1

t + dt

Assumptions:
- A stream tube belonging to a steady flow,
- Ideal fluid (no viscosity, internal friction, no viscous dissipation),
- incompressible fluid
- Z axis directed vertically upwards

dm is the mass of fluid between dS1 and dS2 to time t, At t + dt, it is between
dS1' and dS2'. As the flow is steady, the fluid between dS1' and dS2 and remains
in the same state and it is as if the mass of fluid between dS1 and DS1', was
passed between dS2 and dS2' during the time interval dt.
The variation of the kinetic energy of the mass dm between t and t + dt is equal to
the sum of the work of the forces exerted on it

- Kinetic

1
dm v22 v12
2

energy variation :

- Work of force of gravity : - dm g (z2

- Work

of pressure forces : p1

p1v1dm p2 v2 dm p1
p

dm 2 dm
v1
v2

- z1 )

v1 dS1 dt = p2 v2 dS2 dt

v
p

z cte
2 g g

In term of difference of level, Unit : m

Exemple : drain tank

Between A and B

B VB

v
p

z cte
2g g
P

2
v
p
A
z A B B zB
g
2 g

p A pB pa

vB 2 gh

3.2. Pressure head and piezometric head

The pressure head at a point is equal to :

The piezometric head at a point is equal to :
Bernouilli :
H = cte

pA
V2 p
V2
z A A B zB B
g
2 g g
2g

p
V
z
g
2g

p
z
g

z'
Bernoulli : H = cte
H
2

vB
2g

vA
2g
Graphic representation :

pA
g
A

pB
g
B

2
v

1
zA
0

ZB
x'

Ventury effect

Pitot tube

3.3. Second Bernoulli law

Bernoulli's equation is often used for fluid flows in ducts, pipes, waterworks ...
In a real system, the fluid mass dm provides, receives or dissipates energy.
provide turbine
receive
pump
dissipation singular or regular pressure drop

v22
v12
p1
p2
gz2 dm
gz1 dm Wm

2
2

Wm : exchanged energy

2
Pump

2
Turbine

3.4. pressure drop

Real fluid viscosity
Viscous dissipation = conversion of mechanical energy into heat energy
Regular pressure drop
The energy dissipated by the losses (in terms of energy per unit mass) can be written:

l v
Jr f
d 2g

f : oefficient of friction (coefficient of

linear pressure loss)

Singular pressure drop

p2

They are due to singularities on driving: elbow obstacle enlargement.

in terms of height of fluid:

Js K

v
2g

2
p1

Regular pressure drop

Jr f

l v
d 2g

laminar

f f (Re)

64
Re

turbulent

f f (Re,
e
D

e
)
D

Relative rugosity

Blasius Equation

0,3164
Re1/ 4

Only for smooth pipes and when Reynolds number is between 2300 and 10 5.

Moody's diagram [ 1]

Singular pressure drop

Js K

v
2g

3.5 Euler equation

A Dynamic Force due to the change in direction of the fluid flow.

d mV
F m dt

r
r r
F

q
v

2 v1

q/2
S

r
r
F 0 SV i

q
q/2

Exercice 3.1. : Canalisation d'arrosage

Un rseau d'arrosage est constitu d'un rservoir et d'une canalisation de 100 m
de long et d'un diamtre de 75 mm. La hauteur dans le rservoir est de 4,45 m. Le
coefficient de perte de charge l'entre de la canalisation est de k = 0,5. On
suppose que la canalisation est parfaitement lisse.
Quel est le dbit dans la canalisation ?

4. Extern flow aerodynamic and hydrodynamic

Flow around a body immersed in the fluid flow with a
relative velocity V0 .
Vo

Po : Breakpoint

Po

Assume there is contact adhesive and therefore the fluid velocity is zero at
the body wall.
At very low Reynolds number flow is laminar.

V0

S : separation point

turbulent

zone de
sparation

Different types of flow around the object

transitoire
laminar

4.1. lift and drag

The flow of viscous fluid around the body causes shear
forces and pressure forces.
For a symmetrical profile with axis of symmetry is parallel to the fluid velocity, the
resultant force F is parallel to the fluid velocity.
V0

e
l

V0

1
CL SV
2
1
D CD SV
2
L

Usually we need a
maximum of lift and
a minimum of drag

1
CP SV
2

1
CT SV
2

CL

CD

4.2. spheres et cylinders

T

1
CT SV
2

coefficient of friction for a

sphere[ 1]

coefficient of friction for a

cylinder [ 2]

4.3. Bodies with sharp edges

Some values of coefficient of

friction for simple geometries

Exercices 4.1. : Chemine

Calculer la force qu'exerce un vent de 50 km/h sur une chemine de 25 m de
haut et de 1 m de diamtre. Calculer le moment d'encastrement de la chemine.
Exercices 4.2. : Parachute
Un parachutiste de 120 kg ne doit pas descendre plus de 6 m/s. Calculer le
diamtre minimum du parachute.
Exercice 4.3. : Goutte deau
Calculer la vitesse de chute d'une goutte d'eau de diamtre D = 3 mm en
supposant que celle-ci a la forme d'une sphre et que l'air est dans les conditions
standard de l'air au niveau de la mer. On suppose quelle a une vitesse
constante.

Exercice 4.5. : Anmomtre

Un anmomtre aubes est constitu d'un axe en rotation sur
lequel sont fixes 4 aubes ayant la forme de demi-sphre creuse
vent

Seulement deux aubes sont reprsentes

bras
D

ax
e

FA

L'aube A se dplace dans le sens du vent et ressent un vent (vent

relatif) plus faible. L'aube B se dplace contre le vent et reoit un vent
(vent relatif) plus important.
1) Sachant que les aubes sont une distance R de l'axe de rotation,
calculer VA le vent relatif pour l'aube A et VB le vent relatif pour l'aube B.
2) Si l'anmomtre tourne vitesse constante , c'est que les forces FA
et FB sont gales. Ecrire FA et FB en fonction de , Ve, R, , S, CTA , CTB .
CTA : coefficient de trane d'un hmisphre face ouverte face au vent : 1,42
CTB : coefficient de trane d'un hmisphre face ouverte contre le vent : 0,38
3)Calculer. Quelle est la racine physiquement acceptable de l'quation
du second degr rsoudre ?

Ve

B
Ve = 40
km/h
R = 5 cm
Vue de
dessus

FB

REFERENCES
[ 1] R.W. FOX et A.T. Mc DONALD, "Introduction to Fluid Mechanics", John Wiley & Son, New
York, 1994
[ 2] P. GUTELLE, "Architecture du Voilier", Edition & d'Outre Mer, 2 tomes, 1979
[ 3] Encyclopaedia Universalis, 1997
[ 4] S. CANDEL, "Mcanique des fluides", Dunod Universit, Paris, 1990
[ 5] R. COMOLET, "Mcanique exprimentale des fluides", Masson, 3 tomes, Paris, 1969
[ 6] R. OUZIAUX et J. PERRIER, "Mcanique des fluides appliques", Dunod Universit, Paris,
1978
[ 7] M. HANAUER, "Mcanique des fluides", Bral, Montreuil, 1991
[ 8] D.N. ROY, "Applied Fluid Mechanics", John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988
[ 9] R. JOULIE, Mcanique des fluides applique, Ellipse, Paris, 1998.
[ 10] A.H. Techet, cours de mcanique des fluides, MIT, MA.