Spark Ignition Engine Air-Fuel Ratio and Combustion Process

ME2041Advanced I.C.
Engines
Spark Ignition Engines
Study Tree
Spark Ignition Engine
Air fuel ratio
Design of carburetor
Stages of combustion
Knocking
C. Chambers
Thermodynamic
analysis
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ME2041Advanced I.C.Engines
2014-2015
Unit - 1 : Spark Ignition Engines

Lecture
No.
1
Chapter
Description
Air fuel Raito
2,3
Design of Carburetor
4,5
stages of combustion
Factors affecting knock
Combustion chambers
8,9
Introduction to thermodynamic analysis of SI engine combustion process
Month
Chapter
Questions
May/June
1
1.What is a heterogeneous air-fuel mixture? In which engine is it used?
2013
5
2.Sketch T-Head type combustion chamber used in S.I engines.
3
3
May/June
3.Explain the stages of combustion in SI engines elaborating the flame front propagation.
4.Explain briefly the various factors that influence the flame speed in S.I. engines.
5.Describe the requirements of an S.I engine combustion chamber and explain the various types of
combustion chamber.
1.List down the air fuel ratio requirements of a S.I.engine
2012
2
3
2.Mention the different jets used in a carburetor.

3.a.Explain the various stages of combustion in a S.I engine with a p- diagram.
Nov/Dec
2009
May/June
2008
May/June
2007
3.b.What action can be take with regard to the following variables in order to reduce the
possibility
4of detonation in a S.I.engine? Justify your answers by reason 1.) Compression ratio2.) Ignition
timing 3.) Mixture
inlet temperature
4.) engine
Distance
of flame travel.
5
4.a.Describe
the features
of any two S.I.
combustion
chambers.
4.b.Explain the thermodynamic analysis of S.I engine combustion showing clearly the various terms
6
involved in the governing equation.
1.Differentiate the terms ignition delay and delay period.
3
2.List out the advantages of MPFI system.
2
2
3
2
1
2
3.Discuss briefly , any one type of multi-point port fuel injection system.
3.b.Explain the factors affecting knocking in SI engine.
4.a.Explain the different stages of SI engine combustion.
4.b.Briefly describe the construction of different combustion chambers.
1.Give the equation for the air-fuel ratio of the mixture supplied by a carburetor and explain various
terms involved in it.
Justification
1
3&4
4.Describe the three distinct stages of combustion in S.I.engine

1.Deifferentiate between multipoint injection and direct injection.
2.What are the air-fuel mixture requirements for idling, acceleration, deceleration in a SI engine.
3.a.Explain the working of MPFI system.
2.In what respects the working process in an actual engine differ from a theoretical cycle.
3.a.Briefly discuss the air fuel ratio requirements of SI engine from no load to full load.
3.b.What is meant by abnormal combustion? Explain the phenomena of knock in SI engine.
4.a.Explain port injection and throttle body injections with neat sketches.
4.b.Bring out clearly the design criteria involved and explain any one type of combustion chamber
used in SI engine.
May/June
Justification
1. Why do we require a rich mixture during idling and sudden acceleration of an engine?
2007
Justification
2. What are the advantages of fuel injection system in SI engines?
Thermal Engg
3
3
3. With a neat sketch, explain briefly the Bosch D-Jetronic multi-point port fuel injection system.
4. a.)Define flame development, rapid burning and overall burning angles in SI engine combustion.
4.b.)Explain the reasons for cycle- to -cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder variations in the combustion
phenomena of SI engines
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Materials taken from the book: Ganesan V... Internal Combustion Engines, Third Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2007.
General Discussion:
Engine: device which transforms one form of energy to another form. While transforming energy form to another form, the
efficiency of conversion plays an important role. Most of the engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work and there
they are called heat engines.
Heat engine: Device which transform the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and utilizes this energy to perform u
work. i.e. thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy in a heat engine.
Heat engines Classification, Fig. General 1
Fig. General 1
External Combustion engine: Combustion takes place outside the engine.
Internal Combustion Engine: Combustion takes place within the engine.
Page 4 of 22
Lecture: 1
2014-2015
Air-fuel ratio requirements
Date: ________________
Materials taken from the book R.K.Rajput: Internal Combustion Engine, Third Edition, Laxmi Publication, 2009. P.Pno.357-36
Primary Material for Chapter 1
In general the fuel air ratio is influence of F/A on S.I.engine power output and thermal efficiency. The F/A for each particular
operating conditions is studied under the following two heads, namely
1.
2.
Steady running: Defined as mean continuous operation at a required speed and power output with normal temperat
Transient operation: Includes starting, warming up and changing from one speed or load to another, specially for
automotive vehicle engines during acceleration and decelerations and also

idling.
Fuel/Air Mixture Requirements for Steady running:
Specific torque or Brake mean effective pressure is required to be developed at
specified speed. i.e. Fuel consumption should be lowest, ensuring reliable and
smooth operation.
These requirements can be met with by using optimum F/A ratio.
The fig 1 shows the I.M.E.P (indicated mean effective pressure) and S.F.C (specific
fuel consumption) at fixed engine speed at full throttle open.
1.
The left portion of the curve exhibits the limit of lean

mixture which causes explosion in the intake system, usually known as
back-firing.
2.
Depends upon the type of engine, type of fuel and

operating, the limits on lean and rich side and also F/A ratios may vary.
3.
From the fig 2 that the F/A ratio which gives the highest I.M.E.P is more or
less the same as the F/A ratio which gives the highest B.M.E.P it shows in
fig 3.
4.
This indicates that F.M.E.P (frictional mean effective pressure) is not

affected by F/A ratio.
5.
At lean mixture, the effects of lower flame speeds is small when, at each F/A
ratio, spark timing is adjusted for highest M.E.P (mean effective pressure)
6.
The minimum SFC occurs at a point where, as the F/A ratio is reduced, the
rate of increase in efficiency due to thermodynamic factor, is offset by rate of
decrease in efficiency due to increasing time losses.
Note- Any factor that tends to increase the crank angle occupied by the combustion will tend to increase the F/A ratio for
economy.
Air-fuel ratio requirements of SI Engine
As per requirement of engine, the carburetor provides an air-fuel ratio, which must be within combustion range. Eng
cold at the time of starting so, very rich mixture is required. Rich mixture is also required at time of idling and producing ma
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power. During the normal running, a comparatively lean mixture can be used. For petrol engine; different air-fuel ratios are r
under various conditions of load. These are as discussed below.
i) Air-Fuel Ratio for Starting
Very rich mixture (10: 1) is required at starting of engine. During starting very small amount of fuel is vaporizes
and rest of
ii)
Air-Fuel
Ratio
for state
Idlingso as to give an ignitable mixture.
it stay
in the
liquid
An idling, engine demands a rich mixture, which can be made leaner as the throttle is gradually opened. During idlin
the
pressure in the inlet manifold is about 20 to 25% of atmospheric pressure. At suction stroke, inlet valve opens and the produ
combustion trapped in the clearance volume, expands in the inlet manifold. Latter when the piston moves downwards, the g
along with the fresh charges go into the cylinder. A rich mixture must be supplied during idling, to counteract the tendency
iii)
Air-Fuel
foran
Medium
Load
dilution
andRatio
to get
ignitable
mixture.
Most of the time, engine is running in medium load condition, therefore, it is desirable that the running should be
most
economical in this condition. So a lean mixture can be supplied, as engine has low fuel consumption at medium load. For mu
iv)
Air-Fuel
Ratio slightly
for Maximum
Power
Range due to mal distribution of fuel.
cylinder
engine,
more fuel
is required
When maximum power is required, the engine must be supplied with rich mixture as the economy is of no considera
As the engine enters in the power range, the spark must be retarded otherwise knocking would occur. A lean mixture burns
part of working stroke. As the exhaust valve expose to high temperature gases and have very less time to cool down. Moreo
excess air in the lean mixture may cause an oxidizing action on the hot exhaust valve and leads to failure.
v) Air-Fuel Ratio for Acceleration
Even during normal running, sometimes more power is required for a short period such as to accelerate the
vehicle for
overtaking etc. During this period rich mixture is required.
Secondary Material for chapter 1
Air-fuel Requirement in SI Engines
The spark-ignition automobile engines run on a mixture of gasoline and air. The amount of mixture the engine can take in d
upon following major factors:
(i) Engine displacement.
(ii) Maximum revolution per minute (rpm) of engine. (Hi) Carburetor air flow capacity.
(iii) Volumetric efficiency of engine.
There is a direct relationship between an engines air flow and its fuel requirement. This relationship is called the air-fuel ra
Air-fuel Ratios
The air-fuel ratio is the proportions by weight of air and gasoline mixed by the carburetor as required for combustion
engine. This ratio is extremely important for an engine because there are limits to how rich (with more fuel) or how lean (wit
fuel) it can be, and still remain fully combustible for efficient firing. The mixtures with which the engine can operate range fr
to 18.5:1 i.e. from 8 kg of air/kg of fuel to 18.5 kg of air/kg of fuel. Richer or leaner air-fuel ratio limit causes the engine to m
simply refuse.
Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio
The ideal mixture or ratio at which all the fuels blend with all of the oxygen in the air and be completely burned is ca
the stoichiometric ratio, a chemically perfect combination. In theory, an air fuel ratio of about 14.7:1 i.e. 14.7 kg of air/kg of
produce this ratio, but the exact ratio at which perfect mixture and complete combustion take place depends on the molecu
structure of gasoline, which can vary somewhat.
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Engine Air-fuel Ratios

An automobile SI engine, as indicated above, works with the
air-fuel mixture ranging from 8:1 to 18.5:1. But the ideal ratio would
be one that provides both the maximum power and the best economy,
while producing the least emissions. But such a ratio does not exist
because the fuel requirements of an engine vary widely depending
upon temperature, load, and speed conditions. The best fuel economy
is obtained with a 15:1 to 16:1 ratio, while maximum power output is
achieved with a 12.5:1 to 13.5:1 ratio. A rich mixture in the order of
11:1 is required for idle heavy load, and high-speed conditions. A lean
mixture is required for normal cruising and light load conditions.
Figure1 represents the characteristic curves showing the effect of
mixture ratio on efficiency and fuel consumption.
Fig. 1 Effect of air-fuel ratio on efficiency and fuel consumption.
Air-fuel ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to fuel present in a combustion process such as in an internal combustion
engine or industrial furnace. If exactly enough air is provided to completely burn all of the fuel, the ratio is known as
the stoichiometric mixture, often abbreviated to stoic. For precise AFR calculations, the oxygen content of combustion air sh
specified because of possible dilution by ambient water vapor or enrichment by oxygen additions. The AFR is an important m
for anti-pollution and performance-tuning reasons. The lower the AFR, the "richer" the mixture.
In theory a stoichiometric mixture has just enough air to completely burn the available fuel. In practice this is never
achieved, due primarily to the very short time available in an internal combustion engine for each combustion cycle. Most o
combustion process completes in approximately 4-5 milliseconds at an engine speed of 6,000 rpm. (100 revolutions per sec
milliseconds per revolution) This is the time that elapses from when the spark is fired until the burning of the fuel-air mix is
essentially complete after some 80 degrees of crankshaft rotation. Catalytic converters are designed to work best when the
gases passing through them are the result of nearly perfect combustion.
A stoichiometric mixture unfortunately burns very hot and can damage engine components if the engine is placed u
high load at this fuel-air mixture. Due to the high temperatures at this mixture, detonation of the fuel-air mix shortly after m
cylinder pressure is possible under high load (referred to as knocking or pinging). Detonation can cause serious engine dam
the uncontrolled burning of the fuel air mix can create very high pressures in the cylinder. As a consequence, stoichiometric
mixtures are only used under light load conditions. For acceleration and high load conditions, a richer mixture (lower air-fue
is used to produce cooler combustion products and thereby prevent detonation and overheating of the cylinder head.
It is the Air/Fuel ratio that you can find by completing the equation of combustion. Basically, it says that your using X
kg of
air to burn a kilogram of fuel. The ideal or stoichiometric Air/Fuel ratio for many gasoline type hydrocarbon fuels is very clos
15:1, for diesel engines its vary to 18 to 70.
Ternary Material for Chapter 1
Stoichiometric ratio
The term Stoichiometric ratio describes the chemically correct air-fuel ratio necessary to achieve complete combustion of t
It is represented by the Greek letter, lambda.
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For gasoline fuel, or petrol, the value of the ratio is 14.7 parts of air, to 1 part of fuel. By mass, that's 14.7 kilograms or pou
to each kilogram or pound of fuel. So if lambda equals 1, the air-fuel mixture is at the Stoichiometric ratio, of 14.7 to 1.
If an air-fuel mixture has a higher figure, say, 1.03, there is more air in proportion to the fuel than 14.7 to 1, and the mixtur
slightly lean.
A mixture with a lower lambda value, say 0.97, has proportionately less air than fuel, and the mixture is slightly rich.
The exhaust gas oxygen sensor is also called the lambda sensor, since it can be used to maintain the air-fuel ratio at lambd
1, within very close limits. It can be installed in the exhaust manifold, where it measures the percentage of oxygen in the e
gases.
A high percentage of oxygen may mean too little fuel is entering the engine, the mixture is too lean, and lambda is greater
The sensor delivers this information to the ECU, which adjusts the mixture accordingly.
Similarly, a low percentage of oxygen may indicate too much fuel is entering the engine, the mixture is too rich, and lambd
than 1.
Different fuels have a different Stoichiometric ratio. For instance, with Methanol the air-to-fuel ration is 6.4:1, and with Etha
9:1.
A complete combustion is a process burning all the carbon (C) to (CO ), all the hydrogen (H) to (H O) and all the sulphur (S)
2
(SO ).
2
The combustion process can be expressed as:

[C + H (fuel)] + [O + N (Air)] -> (Combustion Process) -> [CO + H O + N (Heat)]
2
Where, C = Carbon, H = Hydrogen, O = Oxygen, N = Nitrogen

1.
if air content is higher than the stoichiometric ratio - the mixture is said to be fuel-lean
2.
if air content is less than the stoichiometric ratio - the mixture is fuel-rich
Calculating the Ratio
The air to fuel ratio is the property of fuel and chemical composition of the fuel that defines the value for this ratio. Most of t
we use in internal combustion engines are hydrocarbons, and their burning will obviously result in the release of hydrogen a
carbon as residuals, along with heat and pressure. Below is an example of the oxidation reaction of methane (natural gas) a
CH4 + 2(O2) CO2 + 2(H20)
If we look up the atomic weights of the atoms that make up octane and oxygen, we get the following numbers:
Carbon (C) = 12.01, Oxygen (O) = 16 ,Hydrogen (H) = 1.008
So 1 molecule of methane has a molecular weight of: 1 * 12.01 + 4 * 1.008 = 16.042
One oxygen molecule weighs: 2 * 16 = 32
The oxygen-fuel mass ratio is then: 2 * 32 / 1 * 16.042 = 64 / 16.042
So we need 3.99 kg of oxygen for every 1 kg of fuel
Since 23.2 mass-percent of air is actually oxygen, we need: 3.99 * 100/23.2 = 17.2 kg air for every 1 kg of
methane.
When
compositionair-fuel
of a fuel
is known,
this method
So
the the
stoichiometric
ratio
of methane
is 17.2. can be used to derive the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. For the most
common
fuels, this, however, is not necessary because the ratios are known:
1. Natural gas: 17.2 ,Gasoline: 14.7 ,Propane: 15.5 ,Ethanol: 9 ,Methanol: 6.4 ,Hydrogen: 34 ,Diesel: 14.6
Interesting fact: Methanol and ethanol both have a very low air-fuel ratio, while the carbon chain length is comparable to m
and ethane. The reason for this is that alcohols like methanol and ethanol already carry oxygen themselves, which reduces
for oxygen from the air.
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Review above chapter 1 Air/Fuel ratio

Lecture: 2 & 3
Design of Carburetor
Date: ________________
Materials taken from the book R.K.Rajput: Internal Combustion Engine, Third Edition, Laxmi Publication, 2009. P.Pno.367-
Carburetion: The process of preparing in the S.I. engine, a combustible fuel air mixture outside the engine cylinderCarburet
This process is achieved in the indication system.
Carburetor: It is a device which atomizes the fuel and mixes it with air.
Factors influencing carburetion:
1.
The engine speed; the time available for the preparation of the mixture.
2.
The vaporization Charactertics of fuel
3.
The temperature of the incoming air.
4.
The design of the carburetor
In case of modern high speed engines, the time duration available for the formation of mixture is very small and limited.
The time duration for the mixture formation and induction may of the of 10 to 5 milliseconds.
The temperature is a factor which effectively controls vaporization process of the fuel.
For a S.I engine, the design of the carburetor is complicated
Carburetor (Same Venturi and Fuel jet operation)
A device used in petrol engines for atomizing the petrol, controlling its mixture with air, and regulating the intake of
petrol mixture into the engine. The carburetor has several functions: 1) it combines gasoline and air creating a highly combu
mixture, 2) it regulates the ratio of air and fuel, and 3) it controls the engine's speed. The function of the carburetor is to sup
proper fuel-air ratio to the engine cylinder during suction created by the downward movement of the piston. As the piston m
downward a pressure difference is created between the atmosphere and the cylinder which leads to the suction of air in the
This sucked air will also carry with it some droplets of fuel discharged from a tube. The tube has an orifice called carburetor
which is open to the path of sucked air. The rate at which fuel is discharged into the air will depend upon the pressure differ
created. To ensure the atomization of fuel the suction effect must be strong and the fuel outlet should be small.
Working of Simple Carburetor:
To increase the suction effect the passage of air is made narrow. It is made in the form of venturi. The opening of the
jet is placed at the venturi where the suction is greatest because the velocity of air will be maximum at that point. The fig. s
simple carburetor consists of float chamber, nozzle, a venturi, a choke valve and a throttle valve. The narrow passage is call
venturi. The opening of the fuel is normally placed a little below the venturi section.
The atomized fuel and air is mixed at this place and then supplied to the intake manifold of the cylinder. The fuel is
supplied to the fuel jet from the float chamber and the supply of the fuel to the float chamber is regulated by the float pivot
supply valve. As the fuel level in the chamber decreases the float pivot will open the supply of the fuel from fuel tank.
As the air velocity of air passes through the venturi section will be maximum correspondingly the pressure will be
minimum. Due to the pressure difference between the float chamber and the throat of the venturi, fuel is discharged from th
the air. To prevent the overflow of fuel from the jet, the level of fuel in the chamber is kept at a level slightly below the tip.
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The quantity of the fuel supplied is governed by the opening of

the butterfly valve situated after the venturi tube. As the opening of the
valve is small, a less quantity of fuel-air mixture is supplied to the
cylinder which results in reduced power output. If the opening of the
valve is more than an increased quantity of fuel is supplied to the
cylinder which results in greater output.
Lecture: 4 & 5
Stages of Combustion
Date: ________________
Materials taken from the book R.K.Rajput: Internal Combustion Engine, Third Edition, Laxmi Publication, 2009. P.Pno.201-
Combustion: Defined as a relatively rapid chemical combination of hydrogen and carbon in the fuel with the oxygen in the a
resulting in liberation of energy in the form of heat.
Following conditions are necessary for combustion to take place:
i)A combustible mixture
ii.)Some means to initiate combustion.
iii.)Stabilization and propagation of flame in the combustion chamber.
In S.I. engines, a carburetor generally supplies a combustible mixture and the electric spark from a spark plug initiates the
combustions.
The combustion process of SI engines can be
Fig - 5
divided into three broad regions:
1. Ignition and flame development,
2. Flame propagation,
3. Flame termination.
Flame development is generally considered the
consumption of the first 5% of the air-fuel
mixture (some sources use the first
10%).
During the flame development period, ignition
occurs and the combustion process starts, but
very little pressure rise is noticeable and little or
no useful work is produced (Fig. 5).
Just about all useful work produced in an engine cycle is the result of the flame propagation period of the combustion proce
This
is the period when the bulk of the fuel and time, pressure in the expansion stroke.
The final 5% (some sources use 10%) of the air-fuel mass which burns is classified as flame termination. During this time, pr
quickly decreases and combustion stops.
In an SI engine, combustion ideally consists of an exothermic subsonic flame progressing through a premixed homogeneous
mixture.
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The spread of the flame front is greatly increased by induced turbulence, swirl, and squish within the cylinder. The right
combination of fuel and operating characteristics is such that knock is avoided or almost avoided.
Types of combustion:
1. Normal Combustion.
2. Abnormal Combustion.
Normal Combustion:
Normal combustion rarely occurs in a real engine without some trace of auto ignition appearing. After ignition, the flame fro
travels across the combustion chamber.
The gas a heat of the flame front called the "end gas ". The end gas receives heat due to compression by expanding gases a
radiation from the advancing flame front, therefore, its temperature and density increases.
If the temperature exceeds the self - ignition temperature and the un-burnt gas remains at or above this temperature for a p
time equal to/or greater the delay period, spontaneous ignition (or auto ignition) will occurs at various locations.
Shortly after words an audible sound called knock appears. If the end gas does not reach its self-ignition temperature,
the
combustion will be normal.
Abnormal Combustion: In Internal combustion engines, abnormal combustion is a significant phenomenon associated with t
combustion processes on which the life and performance of the engine depends.
The two important abnormal combustion phenomenons are
1. Knock
2. Surface ignition
This abnormal combustion phenomenons are of concern because,
1. When severe, they can cause major engine damage;
2. even if not severe, they are regarded as an objectionable source of noise by the engine.
Knock: Knock is the most important abnormal combustion phenomenon.
1.
It important because it puts a limit on the compression ratio at which an engine can be operated, which in turn cont
efficiency and to some extent power output.
2.
It got the name Knock because of the noise that results from the auto ignition of a portion of fuel air mixture ahe
advancing flame. As the spark is ignited there is a formation of flame front and it starts propagating.
3.
As the flame propagates across the combustion chamber, speed of flame front is about 15-30 m/s ; the unburned ch
ahead of the flame called the END GAS is compressed, raising its pressure, temperature and density. In case of abno
combustion the end gas fuel air mixture undergo fast chemical reactions, which results in auto ignition prior to norm
combustion (i.e. the flame front reaching it).
4.
During auto ignition a large portion of end gas releases its chemical energy rapidly and spontaneously at a rate 5 to
as in case of normal combustion.
5.
This spontaneous ignition of the End gas raises the pressure very rapidly and causes high frequency oscillations insi
cylinder resulting in a high pitched metallic noise characterized as KNOCK.
6.
During this knocking phenomenon pressure waves of very large amplitudes propagate across the combustion cham
very high local pressures are produced which are as high as 150 to 200 bars .
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Local 5% ofthe total charge is sufficient to produce a very violent serve knock. The velocity reached during knock is
order of 300 to 1000 m\s.
Basically knock depends on the outcome of shorter of two different processes (i.e. Least time taken by one of the two proces
they are:
1. The advancing flame front grabbing all the fuel air mixture.
2. The pre combustion reaction in the unburned end gas.
The time taken in this preparative phase of auto ignition (i.e. pre combustion reaction) is called Ignition delay". Knock will
occur if the ignition delay is so long that the flame front consumes all the end gas and auto ignition takes place i.e. normal
combustion occurs. Knock will occur if the pre combustion reaction produce auto ignition before the flame front arrives. Auto
ignition when occurs repeatedly, the phenomenon is called Spark Knock".
Spark knock is controllable by spark advance: advancing the spark increases the knock intensity and retarding the spark de
the knock.
Characteristics of Knock : Knock in S.I. engine generally occurs at the end of combustion process during which the end gas c
trapped between the advancing flame front and the engine. (Cylinder periphery).
Knock primary occurs under wide open throttle operating condition thus it is a direct constrain on engine performance.
It also constrains engine efficiency, as it limits the temp and pressure of the end gas and thus limits the compression ratio o
engine
The impact of knock depends on its intensity and duration. If knock is short duration usually called "Acceleration Knock" it is
unlikely to cause damage. But Constant Speed Knock" however can lead to engine damage.
Surface ignition: The other important abnormal combustion phenomenon is surface ignition. Surface ignition is ignition of fu
charge by overheated valves or spark plugs, by glowing combustion chamber deposits, or by any other hot spot in the engin
combustion chamber.
It is the initiation of flame front by a hot surface other than the spark plug. Mostly surface ignition is due to carbon deposits.
ignition may occur before the spark plug ignites the charge (pre ignition) or after normal ignition (post ignition).
It may produce a single flame or multiple flames.
Uncontrolled combustion is most evident and the results are most severe in case of pre ignition. Surface ignition may also c
knock.
As due surface ignition there is a rapid and high rise of pressure and temperature than in case of normal combustion becaus
flame either starts propagating sooner, or it does from more than one source, which likely results in Knocking.
Knocking is also an outcome of Surface ignition. To identify whether surface ignition causes knock or not, the term "knocking
surface ignition" and "non-knocking s01urface ignition" are used.
Knocking surface ignition usually occurs due to pre ignition caused by glowing combustion chamber deposits and can't be c
by retarding the spark timing since knock is not due to spark ignited flame.
While the non-knocking surface ignition occurs late in the operating cycle. Different surface ignition phenomenon is wild pin
on, run away, rumble, etc. Knocking surface ignition may give rise to "Wild Ping and non-knocking surface ignition to "Rum
While both knocking and non-knocking surface ignition may give rise to "Run-On" and "Run-Away".
Wild ping is a variation of knocking surface ignition, which produces sharp cracking noise in bursts.
Probably it results from early ignition of the fuel air mixture in the combustion chamber by glowing loose deposit particles.
It disappears when the particles are exhausted and reappears when fresh particles break loose from the combustion chamb
surfaces.
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Rumble: Rumble is a relatively stable low frequency noise (600-1200 Hz) phenomenon associated with deposit -caused surfa
ignition in high compression ratio engines. The pressure rises rapidly to a high value and resulting in engine vibration. Rumb
knock can occur together.
Run-on: Run-on occurs when the fuel air mixture within the cylinder continues to ignite when the ignition system is switched
During run-on the engine usually produces knock like noises. It is probably caused by the compression ignition of fuel air mi
(assisted by surface ignition).
Run-away: Run-away is surface ignition which occurs earlier and earlier in the cycle. It is usually caused by overheated spark
valves. It the most destructive type of surface ignitions which may lead to disastrous resultsseizure or melting of piston or
catching fire. It can lead to serious overheating and structural damage to the engine.
Pre-ignition: As discussed earlier, pre ignition is the phenomenon of surface ignition before the passage of spark. The usual
an overheated spot, which may occur at spark plugs, combustion chamber deposits, or exhaust valves.
Mostly it is due to spark plug. Exhaust valve usually run hot and sometimes when there is increase in heat load for these va
will be an increase in the temperature and may cause pre ignition.
Heat transfer principles indicate that the surface of the deposits is hotter than the metal surface to which the deposits are a
Hence, sufficient deposits result in hot enough surfaces to cause pre ignition.
Pre ignition is potentially the most damaging surface ignition phenomenon.
The effect of pre ignition is same as very advanced ignition timing.
Any process that advances the start of combustion that gives maximum torque will cause higher heat rejection because of t
increased burned gas pressures and temperatures (due to the negative work done during the compression stroke).
Higher heat rejection causes higher temperature components thus the pre ignition damage is largely thermal which is evide
the fusion of spark plugs, piston and destruction of piston rings.
Three Stage of Combustion
There are three stages of combustion in SI Engine as shown Fig - 6
i. Ignition lag stage
ii. Flame propagation stage
iii. After burning stage
i. Ignition lag stage:
1.
There is a certain time interval between instant of spark and instant where there is a noticeable rise in pressure due
combustion. This time lag is called IGNITION LAG.
2.
Ignition lag is the time interval in the process of chemical reaction during which molecules get heated up to self-igni
temperature , get ignited and produce a self-propagating nucleus of flame.
3.
The ignition lag is generally expressed in terms of crank angle (q1). The period of ignition lag is shown by path ab. I
lag is very small and lies between 0.00015 to 0.0002 seconds.
4.
An ignition lag of0.002 seconds corresponds to 35 deg crank rotation when the engine is running at 3000 RPM. Angl
advance increase with the speed.
5.
This is a chemical process depending upon the nature of fuel, temperature and pressure, proportions of exhaust gas
rate of oxidation or burning.
Page 13 of 22
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ii. Flame propagation stage:

1.
Once the flame is formed at b, it should be sel

sustained and must be able to propagate throug
the mixture. This is possible when the rate o
heat generation by burning is greater than he
lost by flame to surrounding.
2.
After the pointb, the flame propagation

abnormally low at the beginning as heat lost
more than heat generated. Therefore pressur
rise is also slow as mass of mixture burned
small.
3.
Therefore it is necessary to provide angle o

advance 30 to35 deg, if the peak pressure to b
attained 5-10 deg after TDC.
4.
The time required for crank to rotate through a

Fig - 6
angle q2 is known as combustion period durin
which propagation of flame takes place.
iii. After burning:

1.
Combustion will not stop at point c but continue after attaining peak pressure and this combustion is known as
burning. This generally happens when the rich mixture is supplied to engine.
Lecture: 6
Factors affecting Knocking

Date: ________________
Factors affecting knocking in SI engines

The various engine variables affecting knocking can be classified as:
1.
Temperature factors
2.
Density factors
3.
Time factors
4.
Composition factors
Temperature factors: Increasing the temperature of the unburned mixture increase the possibility of knock in the SI engine w
now discuss the effect of following engine parameters on the temperature of the unburned mixture:
i. Raising the Compression Ratio: Increasing the compression ratio increases both the temperature and pressure (density of
unburned mixture). Increase in temperature reduces the delay period of the end gas which in turn increases the tendency to
ii. Super charging : It also increases both temperature and density, which increase the knocking tendency of engine
iii. Coolant Temperature : Delay period decreases with increase of coolant temperature, decreased delay period increase the
tendency to knock.
iv. Temperature Of The Cylinder And Combustion Chamber Walls : The temperature of the end gas depends on the design of
combustion chamber. Sparking plug and exhaust valve are two hottest parts in the combustion chamber and uneven tempe
leads to pre-ignition and hence the knocking.
Page 14 of 22
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Density factors: Increasing the density of un burnt mixture will increase the possibility of knock in the engine. The engine
parameters which affect the density are as follows:
1.
Increased compression ratio increase the density
2.
Increasing the load opens the throttle valve more and thus the density
3.
Supercharging increase the density of the mixture
4.
Increasing the inlet pressure increases the overall pressure during the cycle.
5.
The high pressure end gas decreases the delay period which increase the tendency of knocking.
Advanced spark timing: Quantity of fuel burnt per cycle before and after TDC position depends on spark timing. The temper
of charge increases by increasing the spark advance and it increases with rate of burning and does not allow sufficient time
mixture to dissipate the heat and increase the knocking tendency
Time factors: Increasing the time of exposure of the unburned mixture to auto-ignition conditions increase the possibility of
in SI engines.
Flame travel distance: If the distance of flame travel is more, then possibility of knocking is also more. This problem can be
by combustion chamber design, spark plug location and engine size. Compact combustion chamber will have better anti-kn
characteristics, since the flame travel and combustion time will be shorter. Further, if the combustion chamber is highly turb
the combustion rate is high and consequently combustion time is further reduced; this further reduces the tendency to knoc
Location of sparkplug: A spark plug which is centrally located in the combustion chamber has minimum tendency to knock a
flame travel is minimum. The flame travel can be reduced by using two or more spark plugs.
Location of exhaust valve: The exhaust valve should be located close to the spark plug so that it is not in the end gas region
otherwise there will be a tendency to knock.
Engine size: Large engines have a greater knocking tendency because flame requires a longer time to travel across the com
chamber. In SI engine therefore, generally limited to 100mm
Turbulence of mixture: Decreasing the turbulence of the mixture decreases the flame speed and hence increases the tenden
knock. Turbulence depends on the design of combustion chamber and one engine speed.
Composition factors:
Molecular Structure: The knocking tendency is markedly affected by the type of the fuel used. Petroleum fuels usually consis
many hydro-carbons of different molecular structure. The structure of the fuel molecule has enormous effect on knocking te
Increasing the carbon-chain increases the knocking tendency and centralizing the carbon atoms decreases the knocking ten
Unsaturated hydrocarbons have less knocking tendency than saturated hydrocarbons.
Fuel-air ratio: The most important effect of fuel-aft ratio is on the reaction time or ignition delay. When the mixture is nearly
richer than stoichiometric (fuel-air ratio =0.08) ignition lag of the end gas is minimum and the velocity of flame propagation
maximum. By making the mixture leaner or richer (than F/A 0.08) the tendency to knocks decreased. A too rich mixture is
especially effective in decreasing or eliminating the knock due to longer delay and lower temperature of compression.
Humidity of air: Increasing atmospheric humidity decreases the tendency to knock by decreasing the reaction time of the fu
Page 15 of 22
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Knocking: Knock is the name given to the noise which is transmitted through the engine structure when essentially spontan
ignition of a portion of the end-gas-the fuel, air, residual gas, mixture ahead of the propagating flame occurs. When this abn
combustion process takes place, there is an extremely rapid release of much of the chemical energy in the end-gas, causing
local pressures and the propagation of pressure waves of substantial amplitude across the combustion chamber.
Effect of Knock:
1. Knock has the following effects on engine operation:
2. Noise and Roughness.
3. Mechanical damage: increase in engine wear, cylinder head and valves may be pitted.
4. Carbon deposits.
5. Increase in heat transfer.
6. Decrease in power output and efficiency.
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7. Pre-ignition: combustion Occurs before the spark.

Effect of engine variables on Knock: To prevent Knock in the S.I. engine the end gas should have:
A- Low temperature. B- Low density. C- Long ignition delay. D- Non- reactive combustion.
When the engine conditions are changed, the effect of the change may be reflected by more than one of the above
variables.
A- Temperature factors:
The temperature of the unburned mixture is increased by the following factors:
1. Raising the compression ratio. 2. Supercharging. 3. Raising the inlet temperature. 4. Raising the coolant temp.
5. Increasing load. 6. Advancing the spark. 7. Raising the temperature of the cylinder and combustion chamber wall
B- Density factors: Increasing density by any of the following methods, will increase the possibility of Knock:
1. Increasing load. 2. Increasing compression ratio. 3. Supercharging. 4. Advancing the spark.
C- Time factors: Increasing the time of exposure of the unburned mixture to auto-ignitions by any of the following fa
will increase tendency to knock:
1. Increasing the distance of the flame travel. 2. Decreasing the turbulence of mixture. 3. Decreasing the speed of th
engine.
D- Composition: The probability of Knock in S.I. engines is decreased by:
1. Increasing the octane rating of the fuel. 2. Either rich or lean mixtures. 3. Stratifying the mixture. 4. Increasing the
humidity of the entering air.
Lecture: 7
Combustion chambers
Date: ________________
Variations are enumerated and discussed below & shown in fig 7.

1.
T-head combustion chamber
2.
L-head combustion chamber
3.
I-head (or overhead valve) combustion chamber
4.
F-head combustion chamber
It may be noted that these chambers are designed to obtain the objectives namely:
1.
A high combustion rate at the start.
2.
A high surface-to-volume ratio near the end of burning.
3.
A rather centrally located spark plug.
T Head Type Combustion chambers: This was first introduced by Ford Motor Corporation in 1908.
This design has following disadvantages.
1.
Requires two cam shafts (for actuating the in-let valve and exhaust valve separately) by two cams mounted on the t
shafts.
Page 17 of 22
2.
2014-2015
Very prone to detonation. There was violent detonation even at a compression ratio of 4. This is because the averag
octane number in 1908 was about 40 -50.
L Head Type Combustion chambers: It is a modification of the T-head type of combustion chamber. It provides the two value
the same side of the cylinder, and the valves are operated through tappet by a single camshaft. This was first introduced by
motor in 1910-30 and was quite popular for some time. This design has an advantage both from manufacturing and mainte
point of view.
Advantages:
1.
Valve mechanism is simple and easy to lubricate.
2.
Detachable head easy to remove for cleaning and decarburizing without
3.
Disturbing either the valve gear or main pipe work.
4.
Valves of larger sizes can be provided.
Disadvantages:
1.
Lack of turbulence as the air had to take two right angle turns to enter the
2.
cylinder and in doing so much initial velocity is lost.
3.
Extremely prone to detonation due to large flame length and slow
4.
combustion due to lack of turbulence.
5.
More surface-to-volume ratio and therefore more heat loss.
6.
Extremely sensitive to ignition timing due to slow combustion process
7.
Valve size restricted.
8.
Thermal failure in cylinder block also. In I-head engine the thermal failure is confined to cylinder head only.
Overhead valve or I head combustion chamber: The disappearance of the side valve or L-head design was inevitable at high
compression ratio of 8:1 because of the lack of space in the combustion chamber to accommodate the valves. Diesel engine
high compression ratios, invariably used overhead valve design. Since 1950 or so mostly overhead valve combustion chamb
used. This type of combustion chamber has both the inlet valve and the exhaust valve located in the cylinder head. An over
engine is superior to side valve engine at high compression ratios. The overhead valve engine is superior to side valve or L h
engine at high compression ratios, for the following reasons:
1.
Lower pumping losses and higher volumetric efficiency from better breathing of the engine from larger valves or val
and more direct passageways.
2.
Less distance for the flame to travel and therefore greater freedom from knock, or in other words, lower octane
requirements.
3.
Less force on the head bolts and therefore less possibility of leakage (of compression gases or jacket water).
4.
The projected area of a side valve combustion chamber is inevitably greater than that of an overhead valve chambe
5.
Removal of the hot exhaust valve from the block to the head, thus confining heat failures to the head. Absence of ex
valve from block also results in more uniform cooling of cylinder and piston.
6.
Lower surface-volume ratio and, therefore, less heat loss and less air pollution.
Page 18 of 22
F- Head combustion chamber: In such a

combustion chamber one valve is in head
2014-2015
Fig - 8
and other in the block. This design is a

compromise between L-head and I-head
combustion chambers. One of the most F
head engines (wedge type) is the one used by
the Rover Company for several years.
Another successful design of this type of
chamber is that used in Wileys jeeps.
Advantages:
1.
High volumetric efficiency
2.
Maximum compression ratio for

fuel of given octane rating
3.
High thermal efficiency
4.
It can operate on leaner air-fuel

ratios without misfiring.
Disadvantages:
1.
This design is the complex mechanism for operation of valves and expensive special shaped piston.
Lecture: 8 & 9
Thermodynamic
analysis
Introduction to thermodynamic analysis of SI Engine combustion process as shown in fig 9

First stroke, Process 6-1 (Induction): The piston travels from TDC to BDC
with the intake valve open and the exhaust valve closed (some valve overlap
occurs near the ends of strokes to accommodate the finite time required for
valve operation). The temperature of the incoming air is increased 25-35 over
the surrounding air as the air passes through the hot intake manifold.
Second Stroke, Process 1-2 (Compression): At BDC the intake valve closes.
The piston travels to TDC compressing the cylinder contents at constant
entropy. Just before TDC, the spark plug fires initiating combustion.
Combustion, Process 2-3. This process is modeled at constant volume even
though combustion requires a finite time in a real engine (cylinder is moving).
Peak cycle temperature and pressure occur at state 3.
Third Stroke, Process 3-4 (Expansion or power stroke): With all valves closed,
the piston travels from TDC to BDC. The process is modeled at constant
entropy.
Exhaust Blow down, Process 4-5:Near the end of the power stroke, the exhaust
valve is opened. The resulting pressure differential forces cylinder gases out
dropping the pressure to that of the exhaust manifold. The process is modeled
at constant volume.
Page 19 of 22
Date: ________________
Fig 9
2014-2015
Fourth Stroke, Process 5-6: With the exhaust valve open, the piston travels from BDC to TDC expelling most of the remaining
exhaust gases.
Thermodynamic analysis
Two Marks - question and answer

1. What are the stages of combustion in a SI engines?
The stages of combustion in a SI engines are:
FIRST STAGE: Ignition lag (or) Preparation phase
SECOND STAGE: Propagation of flame
THIRD STAGE: After burning
2. What are the various factors that affect the flame speed?
a) Turbulence b) F/A ratio c) T, P d) Compression ratio e) Engine speed, size &output
3. Define normal combustion?
In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark travels across the combustion chamber in a fairly uniform manner.
Page 20 of 22
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4. Define abnormal combustion and its consequences?
Under certain operating conditions the combustion deviates from its normal Course leading to loss of performance and poss
damage to the engine are termed as abnormal combustion (or) knocking combustion.
Consequences are (1).Loss of power (2). Recurring pre ignition (3). Mechanical damage to the engine
5. What is equivalence ratio?
The ratio of the actual fuel-air ratio to the stoichiometric fuel air ratio.
6. Short note on SI engine equivalence ratio requirements?
In a homogeneous mixture with equivalence ratio close to 1.0 the flame speed is normally of the order of 40cm/s .However i
engine the maximum flame speed is obtained when is between 1.1 and 1.2 (i.e.) when the mixture is slightly richer than
stoichiometric.
7. Explain the type of vibration produced when auto ignition occurs.
Two different vibrations are produced.
1. In one case, a large amount of mixture may auto ignite giving use to a very rapid increase in pressure throughout the cha
there will be a direct blow on free vibration of the engine parts
2. In another case, larger pressure differences may exit in the combustion chamber and the resulting gas vibration can force
of the chamber to vibrate at the same frequency as the gas.
8. What is the method to detect the phenomenon of knocking?
The scientific method to detect the phenomenon of knocking is to use a pressure transfer this transducer is connected, usua
cathode ray oscilloscope. Thus pressure-time traces can be obtained from the pressure transducer.
9. List out some of the knock limited parameters?
The knock limited parameters are: 1. Knock limited compression ratio2. Knock limited into pressure3. Knock limited Indicate
mean effective pressure. (Klimep)
10. Define performance number?
Performance number is defined as the ratio. Of Knock limited Indicated mean effective pressure with the sample fuel to knoc
limited Indicated mean effective pressure with ISO-OCTANE .when the inlet pressure is kept constant.
11. List the factors that are involved in either producing (or) preventing knock.
The factors that are involved in either producing (or) preventing knock are temperature, pressure, density of the unburned c
and the time factor.
12. List the parameters which are affecting knock in SI engine?
The parameters which are directly (or) indirectly connected with knocking are inlet temperature of mixture compression rati
of inducted charge, power output of the engine.
13. List the parameters in time factors that reduce the knocking?
Parameters are turbulence, engine speed, flame travel distance, combustion chamber shape and location of spark plug.
14. List the composition factors in the knocking?
Air fuel ratio and octane value of the fuel are the composition factors.
15. Write the different types of combustion chambering SI engine?
Page 21 of 22
2014-2015
T-Head type, L- Head type, I- Head type, F- Head type.

16. List the drawbacks of the carburetion?
1. Non uniform distribution of mixture in multi cylinder engines.
2. Loss of volumetric efficiency due to retraction for mixture flow and possibility of back firing.
17. List some of the important requirements of automobile carburetors?
1. Ease of starting the engine, particularly under low ambient conditions.
2. Good and quick acceleration of the engine.3. Good fuel economy.4. Ensuring full torque at low speeds.
18. What are the general types of carburetors?
Types are UPDRAUGHT, DOWN DRAUGHT, and CROSS DRAUGHT.
19. What are the essential parts, compensating device and additional system (modern) carburetors?
Parts fuel strainer, float chamber, main metering and idling system, the choke& the throttle. Compensating devise- Air b
compensating jet, Emulsion tube, auxiliary valve and port, back suction control mechanism. Additional system Ant dieselin
coasting, acceleration pump and economic (or) power enrichment system.
20. Define carburetion?
The process of formation of a combustible fuel air mixture by mixing the proper amount of fuel with air before admission to
cylinder is called carburetion.
21. What are the factors effecting carburetion?
1. The engine speed
2. The vaporization characteristics of fuel
3. The temperature of the incoming air
4. The design of the carburetor
General topic:
Homogeneous Mixtures
1. Homogeneous mixtures have uniform composition.
2. It has no visible boundaries of separation between its constituents.
3. Some examples of homogeneous mixtures are: salt in water, sugar in water..
Heterogeneous Mixtures
1. Heterogeneous mixtures have non uniform composition
2. It has visible boundaries of separation between its constituents.
3. Some examples of heterogeneous mixtures are: water and sand, oil and water.
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Spark Ignition Engines