Chapter 4 Distillation Design

Subject: 1304 332 Unit Operation in Heat transfer

Instructor: Chakkrit Umpuch
Department of Chemical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Ubon Ratchathani University

What are you going to learn in this chapter?

4.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Relations
4.2 Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact for Vapor-Liquid
System
4.3 Simple Distillation Methods
4.4 Distillation with reflux and McCabe-Thiele Method

4.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Relations

4.1.1 Raoults Law
An ideal law, Raoults law, can be defined for vapor-liquid phases in
equilibrium (only ideal solution e.g. benzene-toluene, hexane-heptane etc.

p A PA x A

(1)

Where
pA is the partial pressure of component A in the vapor in Pa (atm)
PA is the vapor pressure of pure A in Pa (atm)
xA is the mole fraction of A in the liquid.

1 x A xB in liquid:
Composition

1 y A y Bin vapor:
Composition

(2)
(3)
3

4.1.2 Boiling-Point Diagrams and xy Plots

Boiling-point diagram for system benzene (A)-toluene (B) at a total pressure
of 101.32 kPa.

Dew point is the temperature at which

the saturated vapour starts to condense.

Bubble-point is the temperature at

which the liquid starts to boil.

The difference between liquid and

vapour compositions is the basis for
distillation operations.

4.1.2 Boiling-Point Diagrams and xy Plots

Boiling-point diagram for system benzene (A)-toluene (B) at a total pressure
of 101.32 kPa.
If we start with a cold liquid
composition is xA1 = 0.318 (xB1
= 0.682) and heat the mixture, it
will start to boil at 98C.
The first vapor composition in
equilibrium is yA1 = 0.532 (yB1 =
0.468).
Continue boiling, the
composition xA will move to the
left since yA is richer in A.

4.1.2 Boiling-Point Diagrams and xy Plots

The boiling point diagram can be calculated from (1) the pure vaporpressure data in the table below and (2) the following equations:
p A pB P
PA x A PB (1 x A ) P

yA

p A PA x A

P
P

(4)
(5)
(6)

Where
pA, pB are the partial pressure of component A and B in the vapor in Pa (atm)
PA , PB are the vapor pressure of pure A and pure B in Pa (atm)
P is total pressure in Pa (atm)
xA is the mole fraction of A in the liquid.
6

4.1.2 Boiling-Point Diagrams and xy Plots

The boiling point diagram can be calculated from (1) the pure vaporpressure data in the table below and (2) the following equations:
1

Ex 4.1 Use of Raoults Law for Boiling-Point Diagram

Calculate the vapor and liquid compositions in equilibrium at 95C
(368.2K) for benzene-toluene using the vapor pressure from the
table 1 at 101.32 kPa.
Solution: At 95C from Table 1 for benzene, PA = 155.7 kPa and PB = 63.3
kPa. Substituting into Eq.(5) and solving,
PA x A PB (1 x A ) P

155.7(xA) + 63.3(1-xA) = 101.32 kPa (760 mmHg)

Hence, xA= 0.411 and xB= 1 xA = 1 - 0.411 = 0.589. Substituting into eqn.
(6),

yA

p A PA x A 155.7(0.411)

0.632
P
P
101.32
8

The boiling point diagram can be calculated from the pure vapor-pressure
data in the table below and the following equations:
1

A common method of plotting the equilibrium data is shown in Fig. 2 where

yA is plotted versus xA for the benzene-toluene system. The 45 line is
given to show that yA is richer in component A than is xA.

Fig. 2 Equilibrium diagram for system benzene(A) toluene(B) at 101.32

kPa (1atm).

10

4.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Relations

4.1.2 Boiling-Point Diagrams and xy Plots

Ideal boiling point diagram

Minimum-boiling azeotrope

Maximum-boiling azeotrope

An azeotrope is a mixture of two or more liquids in such a ratio that its

composition cannot be changed by simple distillation.
This occurs because, when an azeotrope is boiled, the resulting vapor has
the same ratio of constituents as the original mixture.

11

4.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Relations

4.1.2 Boiling-Point Diagrams and xy Plots

12

4.2 Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact for Vapor-Liquid System

A single equilibrium stage is
- the two different phases are brought into intimate contact with each other.
- The mixing time is long enough and the components are essentially at
equilibrium in the two phases after separation.
V1

V2

Where
V1, V2 is a vapor

L0

Total mass balance:

Mass A balance:

L1

L0, L1is a liquid

L0 V2 L1 V1 M
L0 x A0 V2 y A 2 L1 x A1 V1 y A1 Mx AM

In case of constant molal overflow : V1 = V2 and L0 = L1

13

Ex 4.2 Equilibrium Contact of Vapor-Liquid Mixture

A vapor at the dew point and 101.32 kPa containing a mole fraction
of 0.40 benzene (A) and 0.60 toluene (B) and 100 kg mol total is
contacted with 110 kg mol of a liquid at the boiling point containing a
mole fraction of 0.30 benzene and 0.70 toluene. The two streams are
contacted in a single stage, and the outlet streams leave in
equilibrium with each other. Assume constant molal overflow.
Calculate the amounts and compositions of the exit streams.
Solution: The given values are V2 = 100 kg mol, yA2 = 0.40, L0=110 kg
mol , and xA0 = 0.30.
V1

V2

For constant molal overflow,

V2 = V1 and L0 = L1.

L0

L1
14

Material balance on component A,

L0 x A0 V2 y A 2 L1 x A1 V1 y A1 Mx AM
110 (0.30) 100(0.40) 110 x A1 100 y A1

To solve equation above, the equilibrium relation between yA1 and xA1 in
figure below must be used.
First, we assume that xA1 = 0.20 and substitute into equation above to
solve for yA1.
110 (0.30) 100(0.40) 110 (0.2) 100 y A1

Assuming that xA1 = 0.20 and solving yA1 = 0.51.

Next, assuming that xA1=0.40 and solving, yA1 = 0.29.
Next, assuming that xA1=0.40 and solving, yA1 = 0.29.
(These point are plotted on the graph.)
At the intersection of this line with the equilibrium curve,
y = 0.455 and x = 0.25.

Answer

15

16

4.3 Simple Distillation Methods

4.3.1 Introduction
Distillation is a method used to separate the components of liquid solution,
which depends upon the distribution of these various components between
a vapor and a liquid phase.

The vapor phase is created from the liquid phase by vaporization at the
boiling point.

Distillation is concerned with solution where all components are appreciably

volatile such as in ammonia-water or ethanol-water solutions, where both
components will be in the vapor phase.

17

4.3.2 Relative Volatility of Vapor-Liquid Systems

Relative volatility( AB )
It is a measure of the differences in volatility between 2 components, and hence their boiling
points. It indicates how easy or difficult a particular separation will be.

AB

yA / xA
y A / xA

y B / xB (1 y A )(1 x A )

Where AB is the relative volatility of A with respect to B in the binary system.

Raoults law:

P x
yA A A
P

AB

yA

yB

PB xB
P

PA
PB

AB x A
1 ( AB 1) x A

when AB is above 1.0, a separation is possible.

18

Ex 4.3 Using data from table 1 calculate the relative volatility for the
benzene-toluene system at 85C (358.2K) and 105C (378.2K)
Solution: At 85C, substituting into equation below for a system following
Raoutls law,

AB

PA 116 .9

2.54
PB
46.0

Similarly at 105C,
204.2

2.38
86.0
The variation in is about 7%.

Answer

19

4.3.3 Equilibrium or Flash Distillation

4.3.3.1 Introduction to distillation methods
Distillation has two main methods in practice.
1. Production of vapor by boiling the liquid mixture to be separated in a
single stage and recovering and condensing the vapors. No liquid
is allowed to return to the single-stage still to contact the
rising vapors.
2. Returning of a portion of the condensate to the still. The vapors
rise through a series of stages or trays, and part of the condensate
flows downward through the series of stages or trays
countercurrently to the vapors (fractional distillation, distillation with
reflux, or rectification).
There are 3 important types of distillation that occur in a single stage or
still: Equilibrium or flash distillation, Simple batch or differential
distillation and simple steam distillation
20

4.3.3.2 Equilibrium or Flash Distillation

yA
Separator
heater

xA
Flash distillation is a single stage separation technique.
1. A liquid mixture is pumped through a heater to raise the temperature
and enthalpy of the mixture.
2. It then flows through a valve and the pressure is reduced, causing
the liquid to partially vaporize.
3. Once the mixture enters a big enough volume (the flash drum), the liquid and
vapor separate.
4. Because the vapor and liquid are in such close contact up until the flash occurs,
the product liquid and vapor phases approach equilibrium.

21

4.3.3.2 Equilibrium or Flush Distillation

Total mass balance:

F V L
yA
Separator

Component A balance: FxF V y A Lx A

heater
where
F, V and L are flow rate of feed, vapor and liquid phases.

xA

xF, yA and xA are mole fraction of component A in feed, vapor and liquid.

Material balance for more volatile component :

V
F V
xF ( ) y A ( ) x A
F
F F

x F f y A (1 f ) x A

Where
f = V/F = molal fraction of the feed that is vaporized and withdrawn continuously as vapor.
1-f = one as liquid
22

Ex 4.4 A mixture of 50% mole normal heptane and 50% normal

octane at 30C is continuously flash distilled at 1 standard
atmosphere so that 60 mol% of the feed is vaporized. What will be
the composition of the vapor and liquid products?
xA

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

yA

0.247 0.453 0.607 0.717 0.796 0.853 0.898 0.935 0.968

Solution: Given: xF = 0.5, f = 0.6

Find: xA, yA

f V / F

Basis: F = 100 mols

F V yields:
L
Applying the mass balance
Since V fF 0, .6(100) 60

L F V 100 60 40

23

Material balance for more volatile component,

V
F V
xF ( ) y A ( ) x A
F
F F
x F f y A (1 f ) x A
Subtituting value of f =0.6 and xF =0.5 we get,

0.5 0.6y A (1 0.6) x A

0.5 0.6y A 0.4 x A
Assuming that xA = 0.5 and solving yA = 0.5.
Next, assuming that xA=0 and solving, yA = 0.83.
(These point are plotted on the graph.)
At the intersection of this line with the equilibrium curve,
yA = 0.58 and xA = 0.39.

Answer
24

2nd

x=0
y-intercept= 0.834

yA

xA
3th

xA =0.39
yA = 0.58

1st

xF =0.5
yF = 0.5
25

4.3.4 Simple Batch or Differential Distillation

The pot is filled with liquid mixture and heated.

Vapour flows upwards though the column and
condenses at the top.
Part of the iquid is returned to the column as
reflux, and the remainder withdrawn as
distillate.
Nothing is added or withdrawn from the still
until the run is completed.

26

4.3.4 Simple Batch or Differential Distillation

The total moles of component A left in the still

nA will be
nA = xn
where
n is the moles of liquid left in the still at a given
time
y and x is the vapor and liquid compositions

If a small amount of liquid dn is vaporized, the change in the moles of component A is ydn, or
dnA. Differentiating equation gives

dn A d ( xn) ndx xdn

ndx xdn ydn

dn
dx

n
yx

27

4.3.4 Simple Batch or Differential Distillation

Rayleigh
equation

n1

x1
n1
dn
dx

ln
n0 n x0 y x n0

dn
dx

n
yx

dx/(y-x) can be integrated graphically or numerically using tabulated equilibrium data

or an equilibrium curve.
For ideal mixture:

yA
x
AB A
yB
xB
dn A dn dn A
n

AB A
dn B dn dn B
nB
dn A
dn
AB B
nA
nB

ln
Integrating

nA
n
AB ln B
n0 A
n0 B

nB n A

n0 B n0 A

1 / AB

28

Ex 4.5 A batch of crude pentane contains 15 mole percent nbutane and 85 percent n-pentane. If a simple batch distillation at
atmospheric pressure is used to remove 90 percent of butane,
how much pentane will be removed? What will be the
composition of the remaining liquid?
Solution: An average value of 3.5 is used for AB.
Basis: 1 mol feed

nOA 0.15

n A 0.015
(butane)

nOB 0.85

(pentane)

From equation:

nB n A

n0 B n0 A

1 / AB

nB = total mole of B left in still, nA = total mole A left in still.

n0B = total initial mole of B in still, n0A = total initial mole A in still.

29

nB
1 / 3.5
0.1
0.518
0.85
nB 0.518(0.85) 0.440
Total mole of liquid left in still:

n 0.44 0.015 0.455 mol

Mole fraction of butane in liquid left:

0.015
xA
0.033
0.455

30

4.3.5 Simple Steam Distillation

Note that by steam distillation, as long as water is present, the highboiling component B vaporizes at a temperature well below its normal
boiling point without using a vacuum. The A and B are usually
condensed in condenser and the resulting two immiscible liquid
phases separated.
Disadvantage: large amounts of heat must be used to simultaneously
evaporate the water with high-boiling compound.

31

4.3.5 Simple Steam Distillation

When the sum of the separate vapor pressures equals the total pressure,
the mixture boils and
PA PB P
Where
PA
is vapor pressure of pure water A
PB
is vapor pressure of pure B
Then the vapor composition is
P
P
yA A
yB B
P
P
The ratio moles of B distilled to moles of A distilled is

nB PB

n A PA

32

Ex 4.6 A mixture contains 100 kg of H2O and 100 kg of

ethyaniline (mol wt = 121.1 kg/kg mol), which is immiscible with
water. A very slight amount of nonvolatile impurity is dissolved in
the organic. To purify the ethyaniline it is steam-distilled by
bubbling saturated steam into the mixture at a total pressure of
101.32 kPa (1 atm). Determine the boiling point of the mixture
and the composition of the vapor. The vapor pressure of each of
the pure compounds is as follows (T1):
Temperature
K

PA(water)
(kPa)

PB(ethylaniline)
(kPa)

353.8

80.6

48.5

1.33

369.2

96.0

87.7

2.67

372.3

99.15

98.3

3.04

386.4

113.2

163.3

5.33

33

PA PB P Solution:
Temperature
K

PA
(water)
(kPa)

PB
(ethylaniline)
(kPa)

P=PA+PB
(kPa)

353.8

80.6

48.5

1.33

49.83

369.2

96.0

87.7

2.67

90.37

372.3

99.15

98.3

3.04

101.34

386.4

113.2

163.3

5.33

169.23

The boiling temperature = 99.15C since total pressure in this temperature

is equal to atmospheric pressure.
The vapor composition are:

P
98.3kPa
yA A
0.97
P 101.32kPa

yB

PB
3.04

0.03
P 101.32

34

4.4 Distillation with Reflux and McCabe-Thiele

Method
4.4.1 Introduction to Distillation with Reflux
Rectificaition (fractionation) or stage distillation with reflux is
a series of flash-vaporization stages are arranged in a series which the vapor and liquid
products from each stage flow countercurrently to each other.
The liquid in a stage is conducted or flows to the stage below and the vapor from a stage
flow upward to the stage above.
V1

V2

V3

V2

Vn

Vn+1

L0

L1

L2

L1

Ln-1

Ln

A total material balance:

Vn 1 Ln 1 Vn Ln

A component balance on A:

Vn 1 y n 1 Ln 1 x n 1 Vn y n Ln x n
35

4.4.1 Introduction to Distillation with Reflux

In a distillation column the stages (referred to as sieve plates or trays) in a distillation tower are
arranged vertically, as shown schematically in figure below.
1. Feed enters the column somewhere in
the middle of the column.
2. Feed is liquid, it flows down to a sieve
tray or stage.
3. Vapor enters the tray and bubbles
through the liquid on this tray as the
entering liquid flows across.
4. The vapor and liquid leaving the tray
are essentially in equilibrium.
5. The vapor continues up to the next tray
or stage, where it is again contacted with
a downflowing liquid.
6. The concentration of the more volatile
component is being increased in the
vapor form each stage going upward and
decreased in the liquid from each stage
going donwards.
36

4.4.1 Introduction to Distillation with Reflux

In a distillation column the stages (referred to as sieve plates or trays) in a distillation tower are
arranged vertically, as shown schematically in figure below.
7. The final vapor product coming
overhead is condensed in a condenser
and a portion of the liquid product
(distillate) is removed, which contains a
high concentration of A.
8. The remaining liquid from the
condenser is returned (refluxed) as a
liquid to the top tray.
9. The liquid leaving the bottom tray
enters a reboilier, where it partially
vaporized, and the remaining liquid, which
is lean in A or rich in B, is withdrawn as
liquid product.
10. The vapor from the reboiler is sent
back to the bottom stage or trays is much
greater.

37

4.4.3 McCabe-Thiele Method of Calculation for Number of

Theoretical Stages
4.4.3A) Introduction and assumptions
A mathematical graphical method for determining the number of theoretical trays
or stages needed for a given separation of a binary mixture of A and B has been
developed by McCabe and Thiele.
The method uses material balances around certain parts of the tower, which give
operating lines and the xy equilibrium curve for the system.

Main assumption
1) Equimolar overflow through the tower between the feed inlet and the top tray and
the feed inlet and bottom tray.
2) Liquid and vapor streams enter a tray, are equilibrated, and leave.

38

A total material balance:

Vn 1 Ln 1 Vn Ln
A component A balance:

Vn 1 y n 1 Ln 1 x n 1 Vn y n Ln x n

Where
Vn+1 is mol/h of vapor from tray n+1
Ln is mol/h liquid from tray n
yn+1 is mole fraction of A in Vn+1 and so on.

39

4.4.3B) Equation for enriching section

A total material balance:

F D W

(1)

A component A balance:

Fx F Dx D Wx w (2)

Where
F is the entering feed (mol/h)
D is the distillate (mol/h)
W is the bottoms (mol/h)

40

Material balance over dashed-line section:

Vn 1 Ln D

(3)

A balance on component A:

Vn 1 yn 1 Ln xn DxD

(4)
41

Solving for yn+1, the enriching-section operating line is

yn 1

Ln
Dx
xn D
Vn 1
Vn 1

(5)

Since Vn 1 Ln D, Ln / Vn 1 R /( R 1)and equation becomes

y n 1

x
R
xn D
R 1
R 1

(6)

where R Ln / D = reflux ratio = constant.

The eqn. (1) is a straight line on a plot of vapor composition versus liquid
composition.

42

Ln / Vn 1 or R /( R 1) . It intersects the y=x line (45 diagonal

line) at x x D . The intercept of the operating line at x = 0 is y xD /( R 1) .
The slope is

The theoretical stages are determined by starting at xD and stepping off the first
plate to x1. Then y2 is the composition of the vapor passing the liquid x1.
In a similar manner, the other theoretical trays are stepped off down the tower in
the enriching section to the feed tray.

43

4.4.3C Equation for stripping section

Material balance over dashed-line section:

Vm 1 Lm W

A component A balance:

Vm 1 ym 1 Lm xm Wxw (8)

(7)

44

Solving for ym+1, the enriching-section operating line is

ym 1

Lm
Wx
xm W
Vm 1
Vm 1

(9)

Again, since equimolal flow is assumed, Lm LN = constant and

Vm 1 VN

= constant,
L Veqn. (2) is a straight line when plotted as y versus x,
m

with a slope of

m 1

The intercept at x = 0 is

. yIt
intersects
Wx / Vthe y = x line at x = xw.
W

m 1

45

The theoretical stages for the stripping section are determined by starting at
xW, going up to yW , and then across to the operating line, etc.
46

4.4.3D Effect of feed conditions

The condition of feed stream is represented by the quantity q, which is the mole
fraction of liquid in feed.

Lm Ln qF

(10)

Vn Vm (1 q ) F

(11)

The enriching and striping operating-line

equations on an xy diagram can be
derived as follows:

Vn y Ln x Dx D

(12)

Vm y Lm x Wx w

(13)

Where the y and x values are the point of

intersection of the two operating lines.
Subtracting eqn.(12) from eqn.(13),

(Vm Vn ) y ( Lm Ln ) x ( Dx D Wx w ) (14)
47

4.4.3D Effect of feed conditions

Substituting eqn.(2), (10), and (11) into eqn.(14) and rearranging,

q 1

x
q
x F
q 1
q 1

c pL (Tb TF )

Cold-liquid feed

q 1

(15)

c pV (TF Td )

Superheated vapor

where
CpL, CpV = specific heats of liquid and vapor, respectively
TF = temperature of feed
Tb, Td = bubble point and dew point of feed respectively
= heat of vaporization
48

4.4.3E Location of the feed tray in a tower and number of trays.

From eqn.(15), the q-line equation and is the locus of the intersection of the two
operating lines. Setting y = x in eqn(15), the intersection of the q-line equation
with the 45 line is y=x=xF, where xF is the overall composition of the feed.
In given below the figure, the q line is plotted for various feed conditions. The
slope of the q line is q/(q-1).

q = 0 (saturated vapor)
q = 1 (saturated liquid)
q > 1(subcooled liquid)
q < 0 (superheated vapor)
0 < q < 1 (mix of liquid and
vapor)

49

4.4.3D Number of stages and trays

1st point

2nd point

3rd point

n = 7 =number of tray + reboiler

Number of tray = 6

4.4.3F Using Operating Lines and the Feed Line in McCabe-Thiele

Design

Slope = R/(R+1)
Slope = q/(1-q)
Slope = L/ V

Ex 4.7 A continuous fractioning column is to be designed to separate

30,000 kg/h of a mixture of 40 percent benzene and 60 percent toluene
into an overhead product containing 97 percent benzene and a bottom
product containing 98 percent toluene. These percentages are by weight.
A reflux ratio of 3.5 mol to 1 mol of product is to be used. The molal latent
heats of benzene and toluene are 7,360 and 7,960 cal/g mol,
respectively. Benzene and toluene from a nearly ideal system with a
relative volatility of about 2.5. The feed has a boiling point of 95C at a
pressure of 1 atm.
a) Calculate the moles of overhead product and bottom product per hour.
b) Determine the number of ideal plates and the position of the feed plate
(i) if the feed is liquid and at its boiling point; (ii) if the feed is liquid and at
20C (specific heat 0.44 cal/g.C); (iii) if the feed is a mixture of two-thirds
vapor and one-third liquid.

Solution (a)
xF

40
78

40 60

78 92

0.440

xD

97
78

97 3

78 92

0.974

xB

2
78

2 98

78 92

0.0235

100
85.8
The average molecular weight of 40
the feed
60 is

78 92
0vaporization
.44(7,360) 0.56
The average of heat
is(7,960) 7,696 cal / gmol

The feed rate F is 30,000/85.8 = 350 kg mol/h. By an overall benzene

balance, using Eq. below
0.440 0.0235
D 350
153.4kgmol / h
0
.
974

0
.
0235

B 350 153.4 196.6kgmol / h

Solution (b) (i),

We determine the number of ideal plates and position of the feed plate.
1) Plot the equilibrium diagram, erect verticals at xD, xF, and xB.
2) Draw the feed line. Here q=1, and the feed line is vertical.
3) Plot the operating lines. The intercept of the rectifying lie on
the y axis is, xD/(R+1) = 0.974/(3.5+1) = 0.216 (eqn (6)). From the
intersection of the rectifying operating line and the feed line, the stripping
line is drawn.
4) Draw the rectangular steps between the two operating lines
and the equilibrium curve. The stripping line is at the seventh step. By
counting steps it is found that, besides the reboiler, 11 ideal plates are
needed and feed should be introduced on the seventh plate from the top.

Solution (b) (ii),

The latent heat of vaporization of the feed is 7,696/85.8 = 89.7 cal/g.
q 1

0.44(95 20)
1.37
89.7

x
q
x F
q 1
q 1

The slope of the feed line is 1.37/(1.37-1) = 3.70. When steps are drawn
for this case, as shown in Fig. below, it is found that a reboiler and 10
ideal plates are needed and that the feed should be introduced on the
sixth plate.

Solution (b) (iii),

From the definition of q it follows that for this case q = 1/3 and the slope
of the feed line is -0.5. The solution is shown in Fig. below. It calls for a
reboiler and 12 plates, with the feed entering on the seventh plate.

4.4.4 Total and Minimum Reflux Ratio for McCabe-Thiele

Method
4.4.4A Total flux
One limiting values of reflux ratio is that of total reflux, or R = . Since R = Ln/D
and, by eqn.(16).

Vn 1 Ln D

(16)

Then Ln is very large, as is the vapor flow Vn. This means that the slope R/(R+1)
of the enriching operating line becomes 1.0 and the operating lines of both
sections of the column coincide with the 45 diagonol line, as shown in Fig below.
Minimum number of trays can be obtained by returning all the overhead
condensed vapor V1 from the top of the tower back to the tower as reflux, i.e., total
reflux. Also, the liquid in the bottoms is reboiled.

60

Minimum number of theoretical steps Nm

Nm

when a total condenser is used ( is constant).

For small variations in , av 1 w
where

1/ 2

x D 1 xw

1 xD xw (17)
log av

log

(18)

1 is the relative volatility of the overhead vapor

w is the relative volatility of the bottoms liquid.
61

4.4.4B Minimum reflux ratio

The minimum reflux ratio (Rm) will require an infinite number of trays for the given
separation desired of xD and xW.
If R is decreased, the slope of the enriching operating line R/(R+1) is decreased,
and the intersection of this line and the stripping line with the q line moves farther
from the 45 line and closer to the equilibrium line.
Two operating lines touch the
equilibrium line (pinch point) at y
and x (number of steps required
becomes infinite).
The line passes through the points x,
y and xD (y=xD):

Rm
x y
D
Rm 1 xD x

(19)

62

4.4.4C Operating and optimum reflux ratio

Total reflux = number of plates is a minimum, but the tower diameter is infinite.
This corresponds to an infinite cost of tower and steam and cooling water. This
is the limit in the tower operation.
Minimum reflux = number of trays is infinite, which again gives an infinite cost.
These are the two limits in operation of the tower.
Actual operating reflux ratio to use is in between these two limits. The optimum
reflux ratio to use for lowest total cost per year is between the minimum R m and
total reflux (1.2Rm to 1.5Rm).

63

Ex 4.8 What are (a) the minimum reflux ratio and (b) the minimum
number of plates for cases (b)(i), (b)(ii), and (b)(iii) of EX 4.7 if
avis given as 2.47.
Solution (a)
For minimum reflux ratio use eqn. (18). Here xD = 0.974. The results
are given in Table below.

Case

RDm

(b)(i)

0.440

0.658

1.45

(b)(ii)

0.521

0.730

1.17

(b)(iii)

0.300

0.513

2.16

64

Ex 4.8 What are (a) the minimum reflux ratio and (b) the minimum
number of plates for cases (b)(i), (b)(ii), and (b)(iii) of EX 4.7 if
avis given as 2.47.
Solution (b)
For minimum number of plates, the reflux ratio is infinite, the operating
lines coincide with the diagonal, and there are no differences among
the three cases. Use the av = 2.47 and equation below we get,

Nm

x D 1 xw

x
x
0.974 0.976
D
w

ln
1
log av
0.024 0.026

log

8.105 1 7

The minimum number of ideal plates is 7 plus a reboiler.

65

Homework No.6
1. The vapor-pressure data are given below for the system
hexane-octane.
(a) Using Raoults law, calculate and plot the xy data at a total
pressure of 101.32 kPa.
(b) Plot the boiling-point diagram.
T(F)

T(C)

Vapor Pressure
n-Hexane
kPa

mmHg

n-Octane
kPa

mmHg

155.6

68.7

101.3

760

16.1

121

175

79.4

136.7

1025

23.1

173

200

93.3

197.3

1480

37.1

278

225

107.2

284.0

2130

57.9

434

258.2

125.7

456.0

3420

101.3

760

Homework No.6 (continue)

2. A mixture of 100 kg mol which contains 60 mol% n-pentane
(A) and 40 mol% n-heptane (B) is vaporized at 101.32 kPa
pressure under differential conditions until 40 kg mol are
distilled. Use vapor-liquid equilibrium data below. If flash
distillation is done and 40 kg mol are distilled, what is the
composition of the vapor distilled and of the liquid left?
equilibrium data for n-pentane-n-heptane, x and y are mole
fraction of n-pentane
x 0.0 0.059 0.145 0.254 0.398 0.594 0.867 1.000
y 0.0 0.271 0.521 0.701 0.836 0.925 0.984 1.000

Homework No.7
1. A mixture containing 50 g mol of benzene and 50 g mol of
chlorobenzene is distilled by simple distillation without reflux
until 40 percent of the initial charge is taken off as overhead.
The system benzene-chlorobenzene may be considered ideal,
with an averge relative volatility of 5.3
(a) What are the compositions of overhead and residue after
distillation is complete?
(b) The overhead from the first distillation is subjected to a second
simple distillation. Again 40 percent of the charge is taken
overhead. What is the composition of the second over head
product? What is its mass in grams? How many grams of
chlorine does it contain?

Homework No.7 (continue)

2. A mixture of 50 g mol of liquid benzene and 50 g mole water.
Determine the boiling at 101.32 kPa pressure. Liquid benzene
is immiscible in water. Determine the boiling point of the
mixture and the composition of the vapor. Which component
will first be removed completely from the still? Vapor pressure
data of the pure components are as follows:
Temperature

Pwater
(mm Hg)

Pbenzene
(mm Hg)

308.5

35.3

43

150

325.9

52.7

106

300

345.8

72.6

261

600

353.3

80.1

356

760

Homework No.8
1. A saturated liquid feed of 200 mol/h at the boiling point
containing 42mol% heptane and 58% ethyl benzene is to be
fractionated at 101.32 kPa abs to give a distillate containing 97
mol% heptane and a bottoms containing 1.1 mol% heptane.
The reflux ratio used is 2.5:1. Calculate the mol/h distillate,
mol/h bottoms, theoretical number of trays, and the feed tray
number. Equilibrium data are given below at 101.32 kPa abs
pressure for the mole fraction n-heptane xH and yH.
Temperature
K

Temperature

xH

yH

xH

yH

409.3

136.1

383.8

110.6

0.485

0.730

402.6

129.4

0.08

0.23

376.0

102.8

0.790

0.904

392.6

119.4

0.25

0.514

371.5

98.3

1.000

1.000

Homework No.8 (continue)

2. Determine the minimum reflux ration Rm and the minimum

number of theoretical plates at total reflux for the rectification
of a mixture of heptane and ethyl benzene as given in problem
1. Do this by the graphical mehtods of McCabe-Thiele.