TRAN3001

Highway Engineering Lecture

10
Road Construction
Road Maintenance

Road Construction
In the public sector, like the Ministry of Works and
Transport and stateowned companies, with the
necessary personnel and equipment resources, road
construction can be carried out in-house, either as an
end in itself or as part of the infrastructure (together
with water supply, electricity, etc.) for a housing or
other development.
In the private sector the latter is usually the case when
roadwork is carried out in-house with personnel
employed and equipment owned/leased by the
developer.
More often and particularly for major works, specialist
contractors are engaged. The role of technical
personnel engaged by the employer would be for
design and/or administration of the contract and
supervision of the construction.

Road Construction (Contd)

Set out
The scope of works for the construction of the
road is defined by the drawings and
specifications.
The planned horizontal and vertical alignment,
pavement cross-sections, drainage and other
design features of the proposed road have to
be moved from the plans to the ground.
This is accomplished by surveying and setting
out the construction site.

Road Construction (Contd)

Set out (Contd)
Wooden or metal stakes/pegs are used to mark
various road design points within the work
area. They are also used to mark reference
points outside the clearing limits in order to
relocate the centreline, etc. stakes, which are
typically disturbed by the clearing operations.
Datum points or benchmarks are stable points
of reference, with know elevations, close to the
site. They are usually identified on the
drawings and are located during the setting out
of the works.

Road Construction (Contd)

Set out (Contd)
All elevations marked on the reference points
are set out on site with respect to these
benchmarks.
On average reference points are set out at least
every 70 to 100 metres, at locations where the
centreline alignment can be easily reestablished, such as points of curvature.
The whole or a suitable section of the proposed
new road is to be set out to allow construction
activities to proceed without delay.

Road Construction (Contd)

Relocate Public Utilities
Any public utilities should be identified and
then relocated from the carriageway area.
Relocation of public utilities to the shoulder,
footpath, etc. prevents damage to the
carriageway from inspection/repair of these
utilities.
Heavy construction and later traffic loads
can also damage utilities left in the
carriageway and cause disruption in the
supply of these services.

Road Construction(Contd)
Clear and Grub
Site preparation for construction of the road
comprises clearing and grubbing.
During the clearing phase, trees are felled and
the topsoil, which is mostly organic material
that will decompose, is removed, generally
up to a depth of 300 mm.
Particularly in urban areas clearing may also
involve demolishing and removing man-made
obstructions and debris.

Road Construction (Contd)

Clear and Grub (Contd)
Grubbing refers to the clearing and removal
of tree stumps. All roots have to be
removed as, like topsoil, any remaining
vegetation will decay and leave voids in the
subgrade that can cause eventual
settlement of the pavement.
Cut and Fill
Also referred to as Earthworks, this is
carried out after clearing and grubbing, in
accordance with the horizontal and vertical
alignments shown on the drawings.

Earth-Moving Equipment

Bulldozer

Loader

Scraper

Dump Truck

Excavator

Road Construction(Contd)
Cut and Fill (Contd)
Excavation involves the use of equipment like
bulldozers and particularly on steeper slopes,
excavators, to get the required road widths and
slopes.
Depending on the extent of any rock excavation
specialist rock-breaking equipment or blasting
(controlled use of explosives) may be necessary.
Slopes should be protected/supported with temporary
shoring, etc. as required to prevent erosion and
landslides during construction.
Excavated material suitable for fill is loaded onto
dump trucks and hauled to the required areas on site.

Road Construction(Contd)
Cut and Fill (Contd)
The mineral soil (free of organic matter)
used for embankment construction
should be built up in layers or lifts each
of which is spread and then compacted.
While a bulldozer is used to spread the fill
it is not a good machine for compacting
because of its low ground pressure
characteristics, so rollers are required.
Typical lift heights should be about 300
mm and should not exceed 500 mm.

Subgrade Compaction and Finishing

Equipment

Vibrating Roller

Sheepsfoot Roller

Grader
GraGGGrader

Road Construction(Contd)
Compact Subgrade
Proper compaction results in a subgrade that is
sufficiently dense and stable to withstand the
stresses transmitted by the overlying
pavement .
This is particularly important for subgrades under
flexible pavements, however even in the case
of rigid pavements the subgrade must attain
the state of compaction anticipated in the
design procedure.
At least the top 300 mm of embankment and
preferably double this depth should be
compacted to the specified density .

Road Construction(Contd)
Compact Subgrade (Contd)
For cut sections the method of compaction
to achieve the design density at the
appropriate depth will be determined by
the soil type.
Fine-grained soils, especially those of high
plasticity, can be weakened by heavy
compaction equipment.
Particular attention must be given to
sections where the subgrade changes
from cut to fill as there should be no
abrupt change in the degree and
uniformity of compaction.

Road Construction(Contd)
Shape Subgrade
After compaction the surface of the subgrade will
still be fairly rough so at this stage irregularities
will be removed and the subgrade surface is
shaped to the final road cross-section.
This ensures that the pavement will be
constructed to its proper shape and any
moisture that enters into the subgrade can
drain readily.
Once the final shape of the subgrade surface has
been attained, the subgrade, now at formation
level, must be protected prior to the start of
pavement construction.

Road Construction(Contd)
Pavement Construction
Flexible Pavement
Drainage, either temporary or permanent,
should be in place during construction
of the pavement, which requires
effective co-ordination of these works.
Granular subbase material delivered to
the site is spread over the subgrade and
compacted in layers to the specified
thickness and density.

Road Construction(Contd)
Pavement Construction (Contd)
Flexible Pavements (Contd)
Crushed rock aggregate comprising roadbase
material is then spread on the subbase and
also compacted to the required thickness and
density.
Where specified a prime coat (low viscosity
asphaltic concrete) is applied to the roadbase.
In recent years this has been omitted as there is
no real evidence of failure resulting from its
omission.

Road Construction(Contd)
Pavement Construction (Contd)
Flexible Pavements (Contd)
Asphaltic concrete is premixed and delivered to
site at very high temperatures (generally over
120o C) in covered dump trunks.
The asphaltic concrete is discharged directly into
the paver which spreads and provides initial
compaction to the mix which is compacted in
accordance with the specifications.
Where asphaltic concrete comprises a
basecourse and a wearing course a tack coat
(asphalt emulsion) is usually specified to
improve adhesion.

Road Construction(Contd)
Pavement Construction (Contd)
Rigid Pavement
Both subgrade and subbase are prepared as
specified and formwork, dowel bars and
reinforcement are then placed on the
subbase and secured in position.
If dry the subbase is wetted shortly before
placing the concrete to prevent it
absorbing water from the bottom of the
concrete mixture, which can produce
warping stresses and eventual cracking in
the slab.

Road Construction(Contd)
Pavement Construction (Contd)
Rigid Pavement
Ready-mix trucks are used for both mixing and delivery of
the concrete and typically have up to 90 minutes from
initial mixing to delivery.
Concrete is placed and compacted, using small, towed
machines or larger self-powered equipment.
The finished concrete surface is textured (for skid
resistance). Wire brushing is a common example of this.
Curing is the final operation and a curing compound is
often used.

Highway Surface Features

Highway Lighting
Installation of lighting facilities on roads has
served to reduce night accidents, particularly
those involving pedestrians. Fringe benefits
include crime prevention and late evening
shopping.
The primary purpose of the road-lighting
system
Is to promote the safe and efficient movement
of pedestrian and vehicular traffic.

Highway Surface Features

(Contd)
Highway Lighting (Contd)
Lamps used for road lighting include
tungsten and fluorescent.
At one time the tungsten lamp was the
most commonly used but now its use is
largely limited to residential streets.
Despite its low initial cost, its low lightproducing efficiency and rated life limits
its use on heavily- trafficked roads
where lighting standards should be high.

Highway Surface Features

(Contd)
Highway Lighting (Contd)
A fluorescent lamp emits a white light
which gives good visibility and is the least
dazzling to drivers.
It meets the requirements for use on
heavily trafficked roads and is particularly
suited to locations where illuminating the
true colour of a feature is important.
However It has a high cost. Another
disadvantage is the bulk and weight of its
luminaire (fixture which holds the lamp).

Highway Surface Features

(Contd)
Traffic Signs
Traffic signs give information, warnings
and instructions.
An example of an informatory sign is
one giving the distance to a town.
A warning sign is typically used at
dangerous bends and near schools and
pedestrian crossings. Signs can also
giving instructions such as Stop and
No Entry.

Highway Surface Features

(Contd)
Traffic Signs (Contd)
To get the greatest efficiency from traffic
signs they must be designed for the
anticipated traffic conditions and road speeds.
Among the features of road signs are that
they should be of adequate size, legible from
a sufficient distance, contain only essential
information and be located so that they will
remain visible.
To be easily read letters are typically a light
(reflective) colour with a dark background.

Highway Surface Features

(Contd)
Road Markings
Centre-lines, lane-lines and other delineators are
effective traffic management tools.
Centre-lines indicate the division of the carriageway
with traffic flowing in opposing directions. Usually
denoted by broken single lines they function as
guide lines to be crossed at the drivers discretion.
Lane lines serve to organize traffic into the proper
channels, which increases road efficiency.
Reflective paints are widely used as marking
materials since they are relatively inexpensive and
can be rapidly applied. They are often
supplemented by reflective road studs, which are
particularly effective in wet conditions .

Road Maintenance
Road maintenance comprises routine/preventive
maintenance as well as emergency
maintenance and annual budgets for this
recurrent expenditure must cater for both.
Re-painting road markings is an example of the
former whereas replacing a traffic sign or cable
median barrier after a crash is typical of the
latter.
Scheduled maintenance of roads, including
maintenance of road surface features, has been
described as doing inexpensive repairs on good
roads to keep them good.

Road Maintenance (Contd)

Maintaining Surface Features (Contd)
From about five (5) years after construction
the result of weather and traffic is that road
markings are generally faded and would need
to be repainted at regular intervals over the
design life of the road.
Lamps in street fixtures and even the
fixtures/poles, especially if wooden, need to
be inspected and replaced as required.
Any vegetation that can interfere with
overhead lines must be trimmed and the
integrity of underground lines confirmed by
inspection.

Road Maintenance (Contd)

Maintaining Surface Features
(Contd)
Traffic signs must remain unobstructed
and legible. Vegetation and man-made
obstructions must be removed.
Particularly in urban areas with a higher
risk of vandalism, these signs must be
maintained in good order for the safety
of motorists and pedestrians.

Road Maintenance (Contd)

Maintaining Flexible Pavements
It is essential that drains be kept clear and
functioning to preserve the life of the
pavement.
Narrow isolated surface cracks can be sealed
to prevent the intrusion of water and debris.
Deeper, more extensive cracking indicates
distress/failure in layers underlying the
asphalt and the need for reconstruction of
that section of the road.

Road Maintenance (Contd)

Maintaining Flexible Pavements (Contd)
A localized failure or pothole should have been
corrected before progressing to that stage on a wellmaintained road.
However, patching can be a cost-effective method of
repair if properly carried out.
Straight boundaries are marked and cut as these are
easier to compact. Cutting should extend at least
300 mm beyond the cracked area into sound
material adjacent to the patch. The area of the patch
should accommodate the compaction equipment.

Road Maintenance (Contd)

Maintaining Flexible Pavements
(Contd)
The damaged asphalt should be removed
and the underlying areas inspected and
repaired/ replaced as required, before
placing and compacting new asphalt.
Loss of skid resistance, bleeding and
similar surface defects in the asphalt can
be remedied with a minimum 25 mm thick
overlay.

Road Maintenance (Contd)

Maintaining Rigid Pavements
It is equally important for rigid pavements
that the support provided by the subbase
and/or subgrade not be weakened if drains
are not kept clear and functioning.
Cracking is the most common defect in rigid
pavements and these should be sealed prior
to the asphaltic concrete overlay that is
used to maintain a good travelling surface,
to prevent reflective cracking in the overlay.