FORGING

Forging is the controlled plastic deformation of piece of metal into a useful shape,
usually at an elevated temperature. Pressure or repeated press strokes may be used.
Forging can carry out at room temperature (cold forging) or at elevated
temperatures (warm or hot forging) depending on the homologous temperature.

Forged parts have good strength and toughness, and are reliable for highly
stressed and critical applications.

CLASSIFICATION OF FORGING
OPEN DIE FORGING
CLOSED DIE FORGING
IMPRESSION DIE FORGING
PRECISION FORGING

Open-die Forging

Open-die forging is where a solid work piece is placed

between two flat dies and reduced in height by
compressing it
Also called upsetting or flat die forging
Work piece is deformed uniformly under frictionless
conditions

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Open-die Forging

Barreling is caused by frictional forces that oppose the

outward flow of the workpiece at the die interfaces
Minimized by using an effective lubricant
Cogging is an open-die forging operation where
thickness of a bar is reduced by successive forging
steps at specific intervals

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Stages in Open-Die Forging

(a) forge hot billet to max diameter

(b) fuller: tool to mark step-locations

(c) forge right side

(d) reverse part, forge left side

(e) finish (dimension control)

[source:www.scotforge.com]

Closed-die Forging
Closed-die Forging
In true closed-die forging, flash does not form and the
workpiece completely fills the die cavity
Undersized blanks prevent the complete filling of the
die cavity
It is applied to impression die forging with flash
generation

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Stages in Impression-die (Closed-Die) Forging

(a)

(b)

Flash
(c)
1. Blank (bar)

[source:Kalpakjian & Schmid]

2. Edging

3.Blocking 4. Finishing

5. Trimming

IMPRESSION DIE FORGING

In impression-die forging, the workpiece takes the

shape of the die cavity while being forged between two
shaped dies

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PRECISION FORGING
Precision Forging
In true closed-die forging, flash does not form and the
work piece completely fills the die cavity
Undersized blanks prevent the complete filling of the
die cavity
Precision forging requires:
1. Special and more complex dies
2. Precise control of the blanks volume and shape
3. Accurate positioning of the blank in the die cavity

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Various Forging Operations

Coining
A closed-die forging process used in the minting
of coins, medallions and jewellery
Marking parts with letters and numbers can be
done rapidly through coining
Heading
Also called upset forging
An upsetting operation performed on the end of
a round rod or wire in order to increase the cross
section
Products are nails, bolt heads, screws, rivets,
and fasteners

Various Forging Operations

Piercing
A process of indenting the surface of a
workpiece with a punch in order to produce a
cavity or an impression
Piercing force depends on:
1. Cross-sectional area and the tip geometry of the
punch
2. Strength of the material
3. Magnitude of friction at
the sliding interfaces

Various Forging Operations

Hubbing

Process consists of pressing a hardened punch with a tip

geometry into the surface of a block of metal

Hubbing force can be estimated from 3(UTS)(A)

UTS is obtained from Table 2.2 and A is the projected area

of the impression
Orbital Forging

Upper die moves along an orbital path and forms the part
incrementally

Operation is quiet, and parts is formed within 10 to 20

cycles of the orbiting die

Various Forging Operations

Incremental Forging
In this process, a tool forges a blank into a
shape in several small steps
Similar to cogging where the die penetrates the
blank to different depths along the surface
Isothermal Forging
Known as hot-die forging process where it
heats the dies to the same temperature as
workpiece
Complex parts with good dimensional accuracy
can be produce

Various Forging Operations

Rotary Swaging
A solid rod or tube is subjected to radial impact
forces by a set of reciprocating dies of the
machine
Tube Swaging
The internal diameter and/or the thickness of
the tube is reduced with or without the use of
internal mandrels

Forgeability of Metals

Forgeability is defined as the capability of a

material to undergo deformation without
cracking
2 simple tests:
1. Upsetting test
- greater the deformation prior to cracking, the
greater the forgeability of the metal
2. Hot-twist test
- maximum number of turns occurs then
becomes the
forging temperature for maximum forgeability

Forging Defects
Forging Defects
When there is an insufficient volume of material,
the web will buckle and develop laps
If the web is too thick, excess material flows will
develops internal cracks

Forging Defects
Forging Defects
Internal defects may develop from
1. Non uniform deformation of the material in the
die cavity
2. Temperature gradients throughout the work
piece during forging
3. Micro structural changes caused by phase
transformations
. Forging defects can cause fatigue failures

TYPICAL
CHARACTERISTICS

Grain flowControlled grain structure is the primary

benefit of the forging process. With proper
design, it is possible to align grain flow with
directions of the principal stresses that will
occur when the part is loaded in service.

TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Forging helps ensure structural integrity
from piece to piece. Internal pockets,
voids, inclusions, laps, and similar flaws
are easier to avoid by good forging quality
control than they are in castings.
Strength, ductility, and impact resistance
along the grain are significantly higher
than they would be in the randomly
oriented crystals of cast metal or weld
metal.

APPLICATIONS
Because of high-strength and light-weight
requirements , makers of aircraft engines and
structures, along with other aerospace
manufacturers, are the most significant users of
forgings on a value basis.
Moving parts are forged to reduce inertia forces,
and parts that must be supported by other
structures are forged to reduce overall weight
and complexity.
Decorative parts, even when stressed very lightly,
may be produced from forgings to reduce scrap
losses and ensure a plate able surface, since
forged or machined surfaces of forgings can be
polished and plated without revealing blemishes

APPLICATIONS
Parts whose failure would cause injury or
expensive damage are forged for safety.
Some typical forging applications are the
following: landing gear parts for aircraft,
automotive connecting rods, universal joints,
crankshafts, off-highway and farm equipment
parts, plumbing valves, tees, elbows, ordinance
components, railroad wheels, axles, gears, oilfield machinery components, turbine disks and
blades, and bearing assemblies.

Forging Nomenclature

Rib -Any wall filled by flow parallel to die motion is a rib.

Boss-A projection is called a boss when it is filled
parallel to
die motion.
Recess-A recess is a small web area surrounded by
thicker
metal.

Forging Nomenclature
Web - The wall filled by generally horizontal flow,
perpendicular to die motion and parallel to the
parting plane, is the web.
Flash- To be sure that the die cavities will fill
completely, excess metal is usually provided. As the
die halves come together, the excess is extruded
into a gutter at the parting line, producing a part
with a fringe of flash metal around it. This flash is
trimmed off in a separate operation.

Die materials
Required properties

Thermal shock resistance

Thermal fatigue resistance
High temperature strength
High wear resistance
HIgh toughness and ductility
High hardenability
High dimensional stability during hardening
High machinability

Die materials:
alloyed steels (with Cr, Mo, W, V), tool steels, cast steels or
cast
iron. (Heat treatments such are nitriding or chromium plating
are required to
improve die life)

Die materials
1) Carbon steels with 0.7-0.85% C are
appropriate for small tools and flat
impressions.
2) Medium-alloyed tool steels for hammer
dies.
3) Highly alloyed steels for high temperature
resistant dies used in presses and
horizontal forging machines.

Die Design

Design of forging dies includes shape and

complexity of the workpiece, ductility, strength
and sensitivity to deformation rate and
temperature, and frictional characteristics
Workpiece intermediate shapes should be
planned so that they properly fill the die cavities
Software is available to help predict material
flow in forging-die cavities

Die Design
Preshaping
In a properly pre-shaped workpiece:
1. Material should not flow easily into the flash
2. Grain flow pattern should be favorable for the
products strength and reliability
3. Sliding at the workpiecedie interfaces should
be minimized in order to reduce die wear

Die Design
Die Design Features

The parting line should locate at the largest cross

section of the part

For simple symmetrical shapes, the parting line is a

straight line at the center of the forging

For complex shapes, the line may not lie in a single plane

Draft angles are needed to facilitate removal of the part

from the die

Selection of the proper radii for corners and fillets is to

ensure smooth flow of the metal into the die cavity and
improving die life

Lubrication
Lubrication
Greatly influences friction and wear
Affects the forces required, die life,
and material flows into the die
cavities

Die Failures
Die Failures
Failure of dies results in
1. Improper die design
2. Defective die material
3. Improper finishing operations
4. Overheating and heat checking
5. Excessive wear
6. Overloading
7. Improper alignment
8. Misuse
9. Improper handling of the die
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Die Failures
Die Failures
The proper design of dies and selection of die
materials is important
Large cross sections and clearances of a die is needed
to withstand the forces
Overloading of tools and dies can cause premature
failure

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Formiing machiines

Forging Machines
Mechanical Presses
They are either the crank or the eccentric type
Mechanical presses are stroke limited since
speed varies from a maximum to zero
Due to linkage design, very high forces can be
applied in this type of press
Mechanical presses are preferred for forging
parts with high precision

Forging Machines
Hydraulic Presses
Operate at constant speeds and are load limited
Hydraulic presses are slower and involve higher
initial costs but require less maintenance
Typical Speed Rangers of
Forging Equipment
Equipment
Hydraulic press
Mechanical press
Screw press
Gravity drop hammer
Power drop hammer
Counterblow
hammer

m/s
0.06-0.3
0.06-1.5
0.6-1.2
3.6-4.8
3.0-9.0
4.5-9.0

Economics of Forging

Depending on the complexity of the forging,

tool and die, costs range from moderate to
high
Costs are spread out over the number of parts
forged with that particular die set
The more expensive the material, the higher
the cost of the material relative to the total
cost
Size of forgings also has some effect on cost

DESIGN
RECOMMENDATIONS

Forging Drawings
Parting Line
Draft
Ribs, Bosses, Webs, and
Recesses
Machining Allowance
Radii

TOLERANCES

Length and Width Tolerances

Die-Wear Tolerances
Die-Closure Tolerances
Match Tolerances
Straightness Tolerances
Flash-Extension Tolerances
Draft Angles
Total Tolerances
Radii

DESIGN
RECOMMENDATIONS

Forging Drawings

Shapes and dimensions of a part as it will be forged,

before any machining is done, are shown on this drawing.
It is often advisable to use metal-flow simulation software
to study blocker and finisher shapes for forgings.
The simulation software shows how a metal bar changes
shape under the action of the forging press or hammer,
predicts total forging loads and tooling stresses, indicates
where laps and other defects may form, and describes
grain flow patterns
forging design should be developed in partnership
between the forging user and the forging producer.

DESIGN
RECOMMENDATIONS

Parting Line
As the die halves come together and
confine metal in their cavities, their
mating surfaces define a parting line
around the edges of the forging
The parting line is indicated on the
forging drawing, and determining its
location is a critical step in forging design.
Ideally, the parting line will lie in one
plane perpendicular to the axis of die
motion

DESIGN RECOMMENDATION

Parting line

DESIGN RECOMMENDATION
Parting line
Depending on the way in which the part will
be loaded, it may be desirable to change
parting-line location to control grain flow.

DESIGN RECOMMENDATION
Draft
Draft is specified as an angle with respect to the diemotion axis
Die impressions are tapered so that forgings can be
removed from their dies, and forged surfaces that lie
generally parallel to die motion are correspondingly
tapered. This taper, called draft, also promotes flow
into relatively deep die cavities.
a standard draft angle will be specified for all
affected surfaces on a forging
Low-draft and no-draft forgings can be produced in
some metals, such as alluminum and brass .

Typical draft angle for some

commonly used material

DESIGN RECOMMENDATION
Ribs, Bosses, Webs, and Recesses
Metal flow is relatively easy to manage
when ribs and bosses are not too high and
narrow , and it is easiest when the web is
relatively thick and uniform in thickness.
Correspondingly, forging becomes more
difficult when large amounts of metal must
be moved out of relatively thin webs into
such projections as deep ribs and high
bosses.

DESIGN RECOMMENDATION
Ribs, Bosses, Webs, and Recesses

DESIGN RECOMMENDATION
Radii
Forgings are designed with radii on
all their external corners except at
the parting line.
It would require a sharp internal
angle in the die to form a sharp
corner on the forging.
Fillet radii on a forging correspond to
corners in die impressions that metal
must round to fill ribs and bosses.

DESIGN RECOMMENDATION
Machining Allowance
Design features that promote easy
forging add to the metal that must be
machined away.
Machining allowances or finishing
allowances are added to external
dimensions and subtracted from
internal dimensions.

DESIGN RECOMMENDATION
TOLERANCES

Length and Width Tolerances

Die-Wear Tolerances
Die-Closure Tolerances
Match Tolerances
Straightness Tolerances
Flash-Extension Tolerances
Draft Angles
Radii

TOLERANCES
Length and Width Tolerances
Dimensions generally parallel to the
parting plane and perpendicular to
die motion are subject to length and
width tolerances.
Length and width tolerances are
commonly specified at 0.3 percent of
each dimension, rounded off to the
next higher 12 mm or 164 in.

TOLERANCES
Die-Wear Tolerances
These tolerances apply only to dimensions generally
parallel to the parting plane and perpendicular to die
motion. The corresponding variations parallel to die
motion are included in die-closure tolerances.
Die-wear tolerances are plus variations of external
dimensions and minus variations of internal
dimensions. They do not affect center-to-center
dimensions. Thus they allow for erosion of die metal
and corresponding enlargement of the forged parts.

TOLERANCES
Die-Closure Tolerances
Dimensions parallel to die motion between
opposite sides of a forging are affected by
failure of the two die halves to close precisely.
The plus tolerances on such dimensions
There is no minus tolerance in this category.
Effects of die wear on these vertical
dimensions are included in the die-closure
tolerances. An added tolerance of 0.3 percent

TOLERANCES
Match Tolerances
A lateral shift of one die half with respect to
the other moves all features on opposite sides
of the forging correspondingly.
Straightness Tolerances
For relatively long, thin parts, a typical
straightness tolerance is 0.3 percent of length.
When this aspect of forging accuracy is critical,
forged parts are often straightened in
secondary cold operations.

TOLERANCES
Flash-Extension Tolerances
Although there are many other possibilities,
the most common flash-removal method is
by a punching operation in contoured dies.
This may produce clean, trimmed edges ,
but a small bead of flash is allowed.
Draft Angles
Common tolerances on draft angles are
2and 1.

TOLERANCES
Radii
The conventional tolerance on all corner
and fillet radii is plus or minus one-half
the radius. On any corner where metal will
be removed later, the plus radius
tolerance governs how much metal will be
left for producing a sharp corner on the
finished part. The minus radius tolerance,
which would only limit sharpness of the
forged corner, is not enforced