Fractionating Columns

How Many Ideal Stages?

Definition
A fractionating column consists of a series of equilibrium
plates or stages arranged in a stack in which a facility for
downflow of refluxing liquid forms an integral part of the
system.
Feed is introduced at some plate near the centre of the stack.
The section of column above this feed plate is termed
the rectifying section
and that below the feed plate is termed
the stripping section
2

Energy Management
Energy is supplied from a reboiler at (or connected with)
the base of the column.
Energy is removed using a condenser placed at the top of
the rectifying section and below which there is a reflux
divider.
It is usual to thermally insulate the column so that energy is
neither lost from it nor gained by it.

Reflux Divider
This is a device that diverts a proportion of the condensate
back into the rectifying section of the column.
It is usually electromagnetic with a timing device that
diverts condensate for short, but frequent, intervals of a
few seconds such that it is assumed to provide a continuous
reflux.

Definition Diagram
condenser
liquid

vapour

D, xd

V, yt
Plate n + 1
Plate n

liquid

Feed Plate: F, xf

Reflux
divider

Plate m + 1
Plate m
W, xw

Internal Flows

Plate n + 1
Plate n

Feed Plate: F, xf

Plate m + 1

Vn

Ln +1

Ln

F + Ln I

Plate m
Lm + 1

A Typical Plate

Flow of Vapour and Liquid

Vn+1
Plate (n+1)

Vn

Ln+1

Plate n
Vn-1

Ln

Plate (n 1)
Ln-1
8

Features
Each plate receives:a flow of vapour from the plate below.
a flow of liquid from the plate above.
The vapour and liquid arriving at the plate are not in
equilibrium.
The purpose of the plate is to facilitate this equilibrium.
9

Assumptions
No heat losses
Hvap of the MVC = Hvap of the LVC
No heat of mixing.
Steady state operation.
Feed enters at its bubble point

10

Assumptions
Hvap of the MVC = Hvap of the LVC
These enthalpies of vaporization are measured in mole units. So
that as one molecule of volatile component evaporates, one
molecule of less volatile component condenses.
The technical term is Equimolecular Counter Diffusion

11

Material Balances
The analysis of the process proceeds with mass balances taken
around
1) the top of the column and underneath the top plate (n+1)
2) and around the column base and above the bottom plate (m)

12

Top of the Column Balance

1) the top of the column and underneath the top plate (n+1)

Vn = Ln+1 + D

And for the MVC

(n+1)

Vnyn = Ln+1xn+1 + Dxd

Vn

Ln + 1

13

The Top Operating Line

dividing

MVC: Vnyn = Ln+1xn+1 + Dxd

by Vn gives

Ln1
Dxd
yn
xn1
Vn
Vn
As a result of assumption (2) Ln+1 = Ln = Ln1= Ln2 and so on (down to
the feed plate).
(i.e. Constant molar overflow)
This relates the composition of vapour leaving plate n to the liquid
composition on the plate above (n + 1) in the RECTIFYING
SECTION
14

Bottom of the Column Balance

2) and around the column base and above the bottom plate (m)
(Assuming Lm = Lm+1)

Lm + 1

Vm

Lm = Vm + W
And for the MVC

(m)

xm+1Lm = ymVm + Wxw

W
15

The Bottom Operating Line

xm+1Lm = ymVm + Wxw
dividing by Vm gives:-

Lm
Wxw
ym
xm1
Vm
Vm
This relates the composition of vapour leaving plate m to
the liquid composition on the plate above (m + 1) etc. in
the STRIPPING SECTION
16

Equilibrium Data
VLE data are required to find the compositions of liquid and
vapour that exist at, and flow away from, a given plate.
It may be necessary to find experimental data or use Raoults
law if the system approaches ideality.
The relation y = f(x) is required.

17

Number of plates?
The estimation of the number of plates then proceeds from
plate to plate using the operating lines and the VLE data in
sequence.
Calculation: Sorel-Lewis method (can be automated)
Graph:

McCabe Thiele method

In both cases it is necessary to evaluate an overall mass

balance to define all streams compositions and flows
associated with the column.
18

Useful Information
Note that all vapour leaving the top of the column is condensed
so that no change in composition occurs.

Liquid of this composition (xd) is used as reflux (which falls on

to plate n + 1).
yn+1 i.e. yt
D
xd
(n+1)

xd

Calculation Procedure
The composition of liquid xn+1 on plate n + 1 (in equilibrium with
vapour yt, (= xd = yn+1) is read from the (curve on the) VLE
diagram (or calculated from a curve fit).
1

VLE diagram

yt

Since all vapour yt is

(y = x)
condensed yt = xd

y mol fraction MVC in vapour

y=x

x mol fraction MVC in liquid

xd

Continued on next slide

Calculation Procedure
The composition of liquid xn+1 on plate n + 1 (in equilibrium with
vapour yt, (= xd = yn+1) is read from the (curve on the) VLE
diagram (or calculated from a curve fit as VLE y = f(x) )
VLE diagram

Since all vapour yt is

condensed yt = xd

yn+1

y mol fraction MVC in vapour

x mol fraction MVC in liquid

xn+1

xd

21

Calculation Procedure
The composition of the vapour rising to this plate from that below
(yn) is obtained by substituting xn+1 in an operating line equation.

If xn+1 > xf then the the top operating line is used else the bottom
line is used.
If xn+1< xw then stop.
The liquid composition (xn) in equilibrium with vapour yn is read
from the VLE diagram (or calculated..).
22

Evaluation
Each cycle of calculation/use of VLE diagram/data constitutes
the calculation over a complete stage.
The reboiler and condenser constitute one complete stage of
separation, the number of plates/stages in the actual column
= the number of calculation cycles 1.
NB: If the VLE curve is accurately represented by a
polynomial or other function in the range 0 to 1 mf, then the
stagewise calculation may be performed entirely automatically.
It is most convenient when the function is expressed in the
form x = f(y) for the order of procedure given above.
23

Graphical Procedure - Data

f(x
)

The operating lines are plotted on a VLE diagram together with

the diagonal line y = x.

y=x

24

Graphical Procedure - TOL

If xn+1 = 0, the TOL is seen to pass through point (0, Dxd/Vn)

Ln Ln1

Ln
Dxd
yn xn1
Vn
Vn

f(x

So when xn+1 = 0

D
yn xd
Vn

y=x

Dxd/Vn

Graphical Procedure - TOL

By substituting xn+1 = xd in the TOL it is seen that it passes
through the point (xd, xd)

Ln
Dxd
yn xn1
Vn
Vn

yn = xd

f(x
)

Ln
D
yn xd xd
Vn
Vn

y=x

Dxd/Vn
xd

Ln D
yn
xd
Vn

Graphical Procedure - BOL

By substituting xm+1 = xw in the BOL it is seen that it passes
through point (xw, xw) and has a slope of Lm/Vm.
y = mx + c

f(x
)

Lm
Wxw
ym
xm1
Vm
Vm

ym=xw
xw

y=x

Lm W
ym
xw
Vm
27

Graphical Procedure Feed

The simultaneous solution of the TOL and BOL is at xf * the
intersection of the vertical x = xf may be used to plot the BOL

f(x
)

xd

* Only if the
feed is at its
bubble point.

y=x

xw
xw

xf

xd

28

Graphical Procedure Feed

The simultaneous solution of the TOL and BOL is at xf * the
intersection of the vertical x = xf may be used to plot the BOL

f(x
)

xd

* Only if the
feed is at its
bubble point.

y=x

xw
xw

xf

xd

29

Graphical Procedure Plate Count

It is usual to start from xd when the quality of the distillate is
prescribed.

f(x
)

5 stages,

xw

4 plates in
the
column.

y=x

xf

xd

30

A Stage or Plate
Each vertical line represents enrichment (vapour and liquid in
equilibrium)
Each horizontal line represents conversion of vapour to liquid of
the same composition.
Each full step (horizontal + vertical segments) represents a stage of
enrichment (i.e. no. of plates in the column = No. of steps - 1).

31

Limits to The Operation

The quantity Ln/D is usually termed the reflux ratio (R). The
TOL may be expressed in terms of R as follows:-

R
xd
yn
xn1
R1
R1
the intercept of the TOL is (0, xd/(R+1)) and the slope R/(R+1).
32

Limits to The Operation

=
y

As reflux decreases, the

slope tends to 0 (y = xd)

f(x
)

xd

y=x

As reflux increases, the slope tends to 1 and y = x

Increasing Reflux

f(x
)

As R increases the same enrichment (xd) is obtained with a

falling number of theoretical (but not necessarily actual) stages.

y=x
R=

34

Limits to The Operation

=
y

Below this value of R

enrichment to xd is not
possible.

f(x
)

As R decreases the number of plates increases. At some value

(Rmin) the TOL intersects the VLE curve at xf.

y=x

See C & R vol 2, 5th Ed.

p571 578
35

Additional Information
The feed is best input to the plate bearing liquid closest to the
composition xf.
As the reflux ratio is increased so increasing amounts of
condensed vapour are recycled as reflux liquid. This liquid
needs to be re-evaporated in the reboiler.
As the reflux ratio is decreased so an increasing number of
plates are required. This reduces the demand for heat from
the reboiler, but the capital cost of the column increases.

36

Ease of Separation

f(x
)

As the difference in volatilities of components increases

separation becomes easier.

y=x

37